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MINUTES OF PROCEEDINGS

THE INSTITUTION

CIVIL ENGINEERS;

UITH OTHER

SELECTED AND ABSTRACTED PAPERS.

Vol. XXXIX.

SESSION 1874-75.— PAET L

EDITED BY

JAMES rOKEEST, Assoc. Lxst. C.E., Secretary.

Index, Page 439.

^7t)8

LONDON:

^ublisfjclJ bg tljt Cnstitution,
25. GREAT GEORGE STREET, WESTMINSTER, S.W.

1875.

{The right of Publication and of Trantlatum u raerved.}

ADVERTISEMENT.

The Institution is not, as a body, responsible for the facts and
opinions advanced in the following pages.

lokdon: printed bt ■William clowes and sons, Stamford street and cuarikg ceos?.

CONTENTS.

Sect. L— MINUTES OF PROCEEDINGS.
November 10 and 17, 1874,

PAGE

" The Nagpiir Waterworks ; with Observations on the Kainfall, the Flow
from the Ground, and Evaporation at Nagpiir ; and on the Fluctuation
of Rainfall in India and in other places." A. E. Binnie. (3 plates) , . 1

Appendix : Tables referred to in ditto 22

Discussion on ditto (2 woodcuts) 32

November 24 and December 1 and 8, 1874.

*' The Pennsylvania Railroad ; with Remarks on American Railway Con-
struction and Management." C. D. Fox and F. Fox. (4 plates) ... 62

Appendix : Tables referred to in ditto 81

Discussion on ditto 89

December 1, 1874.

Election of Members and Associates 124

Transfer of Associates to class of Members 125

Admisbion of Students 126

December 15, 1874.

" The New South Breakwater at Aberdeen." W. Dyce Cay. (3 plates) . 128
"The Extension of the South Jetty at Kustendjie, Turkey." G. L. RoFf.

(I plate) 142

Discussion on Aberdeen Breakwater and on Kustendjie Jetty (2 woodcuts). 147

December 22, 1874.

Annual General Meeting : Election of Council 160

Annual Report 162

Abstract of Receipts and Expenditure 174

Premiums awarded : Session 1873-74 : — Subjects for Papers : Session 1874-75 178

List of Original Communications, and of Donors to the Library, 1873-74 . ISn

List of Ofhccis 190

IV CONTENTS.

Sect. II.— OTHEE SELECTED PAPEES.

" Engiueering in Sweden." C. P. Sandbeeg. (1 wooJcut) 191

The Implements employed, and the Stone Protection adopted, in the
Keconstructionof the Bridges on the Delhi Railway." C.Stone. (2 plates) 212
'• Notes on the Consolidation oif Earthworks." J. Gaudard. (44 woodcuts) 218

Memoirs of Deceased Members 248

Joseph Cubitt, 248 ; Sir William Fairbairn, Bart., 251 ; Sir Charles Fox,
264 ; John Grantham, 266 ; Thomas Marr Johnson, 268 ; Thomas Login,
269 ; William Richard Morris, 271 ; Sir John Rennie, 273 ; James Raine
Rushton, 278 ; James Samuel, 280 ; Thomas Alfred Yarrow, 282 ; James
Allan, 283; Lieutenant Gordon Bigsby, R.E., 285 ; Thomas Gaul Brown-
ing, 286 ; Cornelius Willes Eborall, 287 ; Thomas Grissell, 289 ; James
Archibald Hamilton Holmes, 290 ; James Innes Hopkins, 291 ; Sampson
Lloyd, 292 ; Sir Hurry Stephen Meysey-Thompson, Bart., 293 ; John Roe,
297; General Sir John Mark Frederic Smith, K.H., R.E., 298; William
Woodcock, 299; Charles Fa veil Forth Wordsworth, Q.C., 300.

Sect. III.— ABSTEACTS OF PAPEES IN FOEEIGN TEANS-
ACTIONS AND PEEIODICALS.

Distribution of Loads over Superstructure of Bridges. M. Lavoinne . . 301

Graphic Method of Calculating the Stresses on Roof Trusses. Otto Spiesz 302
Graphical Determination of Weights, for a given Span and Strain, which a

double T'-iron can support. M. de Blonay 303

Joining of Inclined Lines by Parabolic Arcs 304

Small Oscillations of a Material System in Stable Equilibrium. F. Ldcas. 308

Drainage of Clay Mountains. G. Gerstel 309

Andernach Trass 313

Road-making in the Basses-Pyrenees. M. Conte-Gkandchasifs. . . . 316

Striking the Centres of Arches — Slack-blocks and Sand-boxes .... 319

Upright Arched Bridges. J. B. Eads 320

Bridge over the Elbe at Aussig, Austrian N.W. Ry. W. Hellwag . . 322

Removal of Earth by Machinery from Zizka Tunnel, Prague. Fr. Rziha . 323

«t. Gothard Tunnel 325

Elasticity of Permanent Way. M. Caille 328

Experiences in the Working of Mountain Railways. M. Steinsberg . . 335

Description of some Narrow-gauge Railways. Ch. Leddux 338

Locomotive Engines on Inclined Planes. M. Le Chatelier 342

Common Error in ascertaining Locomotive Adhesion available for the trac-
tion of Trains. J. Moschell 346

Locomotive without Fire. M. S. Pichallt . 347

Tendency of Reversing Lever of Locomotives to " return suddenly " when

being pulled over. A. Balguerie 349

Breakage of Tires on the Moscow-Nishni Railway, during winter i871-72 . 351

Measures for protecting Railways from Snow. E. Pontzen 354

Financial Statistics of European Railways, 1855-73. Dr. G. STtJRMER . . 356

The Hanoverian Machine Company's Works at Linden. H. Richard . . 357

Experiments on the Laws of Filtration. P. Havrez 359

CONTENTS. V

PACiE

Graphic Determination of the Hydraulic Head, velocity of discharge, and

time of emptying of fluids from vessels of various forms. Dr. K. Proll . 363

Rainfall of the Basin of the Seine. M. Belgrand 364

Hydrology of the Basin of the Seine. M. A. Delaire 365

Flow of the We.-t Branch of the Croton Eiver. J. J. R. Croes .... 367

Relation between Water Levels of Main Rivera in Holland. J. P. Delprat 368

Observations on Subterranean Water in Dresden. H. Maxck .... 369

On the Flow of Atmospheric Air. A. Fliegser 370

Researches on the Discharge of Air under Great Pressures. Dr. G. Zeunt:r 375

Drainage System of Dantzie. H. Vox Winter 379

Utilisation of Sewer Water of Paris for Agriculture. A. Dcraxd-Clate . 380

Dresden Waterworks. H. Salbach 383

Gas-holder Explosions. H. Schiele 386

Submerged Gas and Water Mains. H. Janssen 387

Mosel-Saar Canal. H. Knobloch 388

Gravelle Lock on the St. Maurice Canal. M. Dardart 389

Damming of the Cheliff. M. Lamairesse 390

Reconstruction of the Chateau-Gontier Bridge. M. Legras 392

Traversing Bridge between S. Malo and S. Servan. M. F. de Fourcroy . 394

Harbour of Spezia. M. Maldixi 396

Evaporation in Steam Boilers decreasing in Geometrical Progression. P.

Havrez 398

Surface Condensers. M. Audexet 399

Tugboats on the Rhone. M. Villaret 404

Theory of the Transmission of Power by Ropes. H. Resal 406

Deep Boring Apparatus in the Haselgebirg. A. Aigjter 408

Biuning Coal Mine at Kidder Slope. M. Coryell 411

The Combustion of Petroleum. M. Barret 412

Respective merits of Blast-furnace or Cupola Castings. A. Ledebcr 416

Size of Blast-furnace Charges 418

Inquiries into the Texture of Iron. M. Jaxoyer 419

MechaJiical Properties of Gun-metal. M. Tresca 421

Experimental and Geometrical Investigation of Internal Ballistics. General

MoRiy 422

Experimental Researches on Explosive Substances. MM. Roux and Sarrau 423
Electro-coppered Cast-iron Cylinders for printing on Stuffs. Th. Schlitm-

BERGER 425

Cultivation of the Sugar-cane in Spain. M. Grant) 427

Multiple System of Signalling 428

Freezing by Capillary Attraction and Evaporation. M. C. Decharme . . 434

Mechanical Production of Cold by Expansion of Air. J. Armexgacd, Jcn. 435

Index 439

OMISSION.

VoL xxxviii., page 248. The following paragraphs should have appeared : —

It was announced on the 14th of April that the Council, acting under the
provisions of Sect. III., CI. VIII., of the Bye-Laws, had transferred Robert
DaglisR, Francis Fox (Sir Chas. Fox and Sons), John Clarke Hawkshaw, M.A.^
James Shand, Arthur Telford Simpson, James Carrington Simpson, and Henry
Hay Wake from the Class of Associate to that erf Member.

Also that the following Candidates, having been duly recommended, had been
admitted by the Council, under the provisions of Sect. IV. of the Bye-Laws, aa
Students of the Institution: Bernard William Cantopher, Harry Polhill
Chambers, George Gooch, Everard Lempriere Hesketh, Philip Harrison
Holmes, John Harry Lorimer, Henry Charles Snell, and Isidobe Spiel-

llANN.

ERRATUM.

Vol. xxxix., page 119, line 34, /or "4 feet 7 iuches/' read " 4 feet 1 inch."

THE

INSTITUTION

CIVIL ENGINEERS.

SESSION 1874-75.— PART I.

Sect. I.— MINUTES OF TROCEEDINGS.

NovemlDer 10, 1874.

THOS. E. HAREISON, President,
in the Chair.

Xo. 1,398. — "The Xagpiir Waterworks; with Observations on the
Eainfall, the Flow from the Ground, and Evaporation at
Xagpur ; and on the Fluctuation of Eainfall in India and in
other places."" By Alexander Eichardsox Binnie, M. Inst. C.E.

Nagpur, the capital of the Central Provinces of the Indian Empire,
is situated in 21^ 9' N. latitude, and 79^ 11' E. longitude, at an
elevation of from 975 feet to 1,015 feet above sea level. It is
10 miles distant from the Kanhan river, one of the principal tribu-
taries of the Weingunga, a confluent of the Godavery, and 519
miles N.E. from Bombay, on the Great Indian Peninsula railway,
being at the extremity of one of the branches of that line. The
geological formation of the district is trappean, with basaltic
eruptions rising into low rounded hills, and in some places, as at
Sitabaldi, the hill fort of Nagpur, into abrupt eminences. The
city, however, is mostly built on gneiss and other metamorphic
rocks, of apparently older formation than the basaltic and trappean
series which overlie them. The average annual rainfall for the
nineteen years 1854-5 to 1872-3 (Appendix, Table I., page 22) was
40*73 inches. Of this amount 37*52 inches fell during the mon-
soon months of June, July, August, September, and the early part
of October, and the remaining 3*21 inches in showers during the

' The discussion upon tliis Paper occupied portions of three evenings, but an
abstract of the whole is given consecutively.
^1874-75. N.S.] B

2 THE NAGPLR WATERWORKS.

rest of the year. By the census of 1872, the population was 84,000 ;
and from older records it is believed not to be upon the increase.

Up to the time of the completion of the works about to be
described, the inhabitants of the city often suffered severely
in consequence of the scanty and impure nature of the water
supply. It appears from an official return, made in 1864, that out
of twelve hundred and thirty-one wells sunk in the basaltic and
metamorphic rocks on which the city is built, about nine hundred
yielded brackish water ; and even those yielding fresh water are
thought to have been contaminated bj'' the main drain of the town.
Besides wells, there were two other sources of supply — the Jumii
Talcio, an artificial tank or reservoir, between the native town
and the civil station (Plate 1, Fig. 1) ; and an old and decayed
work, fed from a reservoir at Ambajhari, 4 miles from the city.
The former of these sources was not sufficiently elevated to com-
mand the city, and the water was unfit for drinking owing to the
drainage area being thickly inhabited; the latter source will be
again referred to.

During the dry season following the failure of the rains of 1868,
the evils of the then existing state of affairs became painfully ap-
parent. The Chief Commissioner, Mr. J. H. Morris, C.S., having
determined to remedy them, the Author was directed to prepare a
project for furnishing the city with a pure and abundant supply
of water. The question had before been the subject of discussion,,
and several proposals had been made as to the best direction in
which to look for a source of supply. The various suggestions
were carefully inquired into, and the whole of the country was
examined in detail.

The points to be considered were, as all the streams dry uj) after
the termination of the rains, that a good project must include a
large storage reservoir, because the subsoil water, owing to its
freqiient brackishness, could not be used ; that the reservoir should
be situated at a sufficiently high level to command the city, and
be of such capacity as to provide for years of fluctuating rainfall,
and for periods of more than one year during which it might
remain below the average ; and that the reservoir should receive
the drainage of a tract of country large enough to yield, even
under the average rainfall of the three driest consecutive years, a
sufficient supply for the wants of the city, and to provide for
evaporation during the dry months.

The result of this examination led the Author, in November
1869, to advise that the old reservoir at Ambajhari should be
remodelled and enlarged, and that the water should be brought
to the city in cast-iron pipes under constant pressure. These

THE NAGPt'R •WATERWORKS. 3

rocoiuinciidations, having been approved by the municipality ami
the local oflSccrs, received the sanction of the Giovernment of India
in April 1870.

The old works, which formed the basis of the project, were con-
structed under the Bhonsla dynasty (Rajhas of Nagpiir), about
eighty or ninety years ago, principally for the purpose of supplying
the palace, and the houses and gardens of a few of the native gentle-
men attached to the Court. The site of the reservoir is at a point
on the river Nag, which flows through and gives its name to
Niigpur, a little to the south-west of the village of Ambajhari
(Plate 1, Fig. 1), which name literally means the spring of the
mango grove. Perhaps the existence of some natural springs at
this place may have led to the selection of the site ; at any rate,
the Author can state, from personal observation, that even when
there was no water in the old reservoir, springs did exist in the lo^^'
ground below the embankment, and provision appears to have been
made for securing the water flowing from them, when other sources
of supply failed.

The ancient reservoir was formed by an embankment, rather
crooked in its alignment, and 856 yards in length (Plate 1, Fig. 2),
across the valley of the Nag. Its average height was 12 feet, the
extreme height being 20 feet. Its width at the top varied from
40 feet to 60 feet, and the back slope had an inclination of about
l£- to 1 ; the inner face was protected by a vertical rubble wall,
with projecting semicircular and octagonal bastions, also of rubble
masonry. The reservoir, when full, had an area of 237 acres,
and contained 80,000,000 cubic feet. The water was drawn from
it through a masonry sluice, the flood waters being discharged
over two waste weirs, of the aggregate length of 128 feet. Another
sluice, 200 feet south of the one in work, had been stopped up, but
a good deal of water leaked through.

The Ambajhari reservoir was dry during April and May 1869.
The Author then examined the face wall, which was cracked in
many places, and showed other signs of unequal settlement, and at
the same time tested, by digging holes in the bed of the reservoir,
the amount and nature of the deposit since its construction. This
was clean earthy matter, in no case of a greater depth than 2 feet
6 inches. The old sluice (Plate 1, Figs. 3 and 4) projected several
feet bej^ond the face wall, and was flanked on the sides by stone steps.
The discharge of water was regulated by wooden plugs inserted
in five holes in the steps of the outer face, and in seven holes in
the side of the well or chamber A. The flow into the city through
the masonry pipe was further regulated by another series of wooden

B 2

4 THE NAGPUE WATERWORKS.

plugs in the chamber C ; and the water couhi at any time he cut
off from the city by inserting one plug in the outlet of the well
marked B. The sluice was generally worked by opening the upper
submerged plug on the outside, so as to keep the water in the
well A a few feet lower than that in the reservoir as well as one of
the submerged plugs in the well A, so that the water did not rise
more than a foot or so in the well B ; and this arrangement was
repeated in the well or chamber C. In the south side of chamber C
there was another opening, for the purpose, as explained by one of
the old native watermen, of collecting the water from the springs
below the reservoir, which often flowed, even in dry seasons, when
the reservoir was empty; but in 1869 the channel leading to it
was choked.

The pipe from the chamber C to the city was 4 miles in length,
and was formed of blocks of sandstone, from 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet
6 inches long, and 18 inches to 2 feet square, through which a
circular hole 9 inches in diameter was bored (Plate 1, Figs. 5 and 6).
At one end of each block there was a recess and at the other end a
projection, and the joints were made good with mortar, in which
a little chopped hemp or cotton had been mixed ; the whole of the
blocks were surrounded by basalt rubble masonry to a thickness of
from 1 foot to 18 inches. The alignment and levels of the pipe track
were somewhat irregular. Frequent water towers or cisterns allowed
of the disengagement of air, but their principal use was to reduce
the head of water, which escaped when required, by openings in the
sides of the tower, closed by wooden or masonry plugs. In this
way the available head to overcome friction in the last 3 miles
of the pipe was reduced to 1 foot. The distribution in the city
was on the intermittent principle, the water from the reservoir
being delivered into small cisterns (Plate 1 , Figs. 7 and 8), in the
bottom of which were several holes leading to the service pipes of
unglazed earthenware. The water was in turn admitted to or
shut off from these pipes by the insertion of wooden plugs in the
holes. The design of these old works exhibited much care and
skill, principally with a view to accommodate the pressure of the
water to the strength of the pipe.

In 1 868-69 the whole of the earthen part of the embankment
and of its slopes was covered with trees and bushes, and the water
leaked in many places from the toe of the outer slope. This
leakage, joining with the flow of the springs, had caused a swamp
just below the bank, which was covered with rank vegetation,
and was dangerous to walk or ride over, being full of holes and
boggy places. Trial pits having been sunk outside the embank-

THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS. 5

ment, it was found that the rock floor of the valley was covered
to a depth of from 3 feet to 14 feet with sand, gravel, and other
more or less porous material ; and it was evident that the water
made its way from the reservoir under the embankment, as it rose
in, and flowed out of, these trial pits in considerable volume. The
masonry pipe was also in a ruinous condition ; the soft sandstone
had been broken and repaired in many places, and had become
very friable; a bright green vegetation flourished around the
leaky places ; and internally the pipe was choked by weeds brouglit
down in the water when the reservoir was low, and by the roots of
trees. Hence, owing to leakage, both surface and subsoil, and to
the evaporation to which so shallow a sheet of water was exposed,
the reservoir, as in 1869, was occasionally dry during the hot
months, when water was most required; and even when the reser-
voir was full, the old stone pipe could deliver but a small supply
in the city, and this was continually shut off to eifect repairs, &c.

The Author selected these old works because above the reservoir
there was a catchment area of 6*6 square miles (Plate 1, Fig. 1),
free from cultivation and but slightly covered with soil, the geo-
logical formation being nodular trap and other associated basaltic
rocks. The site of the ancient reservoir also aiforded the most
economical storage ground, and its level and distance from the citj'
were such as to enable gravitation works to be constructed within
the means at the disposal of the municipality.

The works consist of: — A puddle trench through the old em-
bankment, extending at least 3 feet into the rocky floor of the
valley. The embankment has been raised 17 feet 4 inches above
the level of the top of the old face wall, and a puddle wall con-
structed to within 3 feet of the full height of the new embank-
ment. Inside the reservoir a straining and regulating tower has
been built, and a syphon discharge pipe laid from it over the
top of the old embankment, and below the level of the newly raised
portion, with a valve house at the foot of the outer slope. A new
waste weir at a level 13 feet 4 inches above those of the old reser-
voir, and a main pipe 4 miles long and 13 inches diameter, with
10,500 lineal yards of distribution pipes of 12 inches diameter, and
downwards, have also been provided. The result is that a reser-
voir, containing a gross quantity of 257,500,000 cubic feet of
water, and an available storage of 240,000,000 cubic feet, or
1,500,000,000 gallons, has been formed, the top water area of whicli
is 370 acres. It is calculated that, with this amount of storage,
a supply of 15 gallons per head per day of twenty-four hours can
be maintained even in years of extreme drought.

6 THE NAGPt'R WATERWORKS.

"Wliile the works were being carried out tlie water was retained
in the old reservoir to keep np, as long as practicable, a supply
through the old stone pipe. Active operations were commenced in
October 1870, by draining the swamp below the embankment, fol-
lowed by the excavation of the puddle trench. It was determined
to sink the trench at a distance of 45 feet 6 inches from, and
nearly parallel to, the old face wall ; by so doing the trench was
carried through nearly the whole depth of the embankment,
and, for the most part, a good foundation of well-consolidated
material was secured for the front, and the greater part of the
back slope. The removal of the necessary material, which was of
inferior quality, allowed of its place being filled up on each side
of the puddle wall with selected earth. This trench (Plate 1, Fig. 9)
had side slopes varying from |^ to ^ to 1 , up which steps were
cut, by which the coolies carried basket-loads of earth, either to
form the slope of 2 to 1 in front of the face wall, or the base of
the outer slope where it extended beyond the embankment. "While
the excavation was in progress the water in the old reservoir stood
from 15 feet to 20 feet above the deeper portions of the excavation,
the leakage being pumped out by a portable engine and centrifugal
pump. In cutting the trench, as the rock was approached, several
springs of considerable volume were intercepted at, and a little
to the north of, the two square depressions in the floor of the
puddle trench (Plate 1, Fig. 2), 1,000 feet from the south end of
the embankment. The water in these springs came from the outer
side of the trench, and probably was the subsoil drainage of
high land to the south-east of the soitthern end of the embank-
ment; for, when this part of the trench was filled with puddle,
the springs below the embankment increased, although it was
towards the end of the hot season. The trench was 1,033 yards in
length, of an average depth of 25 feet, and an extreme depth
of 36 feet near the old sluice. The bottom width in the rpck
was 5 feet, the top varied from 20 feet to 49 feet. The quan-
tity of material excavated was, in the old embankment, 965,718
cubic feet ; in the ground below the old embankment and above the
rock 243,788 cubic feet, and in the rock itself 58,970 cubic feet,
making a total of 1,268,476 cubic feet, or about 47,000 cubic yards.
The cost, including blasting, pumping, and preliminary drainage,
was 23,681 rupees, or at the rate of a fraction over Is. per cubic yard.

The puddle wall, filling the trench, and forming the centre
of the embankment, was constructed with clay, spread in even
layers not exceeding 8 inches in thickness, soaked in water during
the' night, and worked up in the early part of the following day.

THE NAGPUR "WATERWOKKS. 7

There being no good clay procuraLlo in the immediate neighl)oiir-
hood of the works, it was brought from a distance of 3 miles in
bullock carts. The wndth of the imddle wall (Plate 1, Fig. 9) at
tlie top is 5 feet, with a batter on each side of 1 inch jDer foot ; this
makes the thickness at the ground level about 10 feet. It decreases
from that width down to 5 feet in the rock at the bottom of the
trench. The consumption of puddle was 900,000 cubic feet, or
-13,300 cubic yards, and, as it cost 66,586 rupees, the work was
executed at a rate of 4s. per cubic 3'ard, including digging, carting,
and working. The earth from the puddle trench was placed in
front of the face wall at a slope of 2 to 1 (Plate 1, Fig. 9). The
lierm on the top of the old embankment, to prevent the face
wall becoming surcharged, is 9 feet 6 inches wide, and is raised
■_' feet 4 inches above the old wall. The top of the ancient em-
Ijankment has been carefully trenched longitudinally to insure
a, junction between the old and the new work. The general
inclination of the inner slope is 2^ to 1, that of the outer slope
being 2 to 1. The top of the embankment is 6 feet above
the sill of the waste weir, and has an extreme width of 7 feet
ifi inches, being finished off with curbs of rough stone laid dry.
Black cotton soil was placed on each side of the puddle wall
in the trench, and was raised above the level of the old bank at
ji slope of 1 to 1, the outer portion of the embankment being the
harder and less retentive material. The earth was deposited by
coolies from baskets in layers about 1 foot thick, each layer being
Avatered, trodden, and punned, before the next was laid on. The
inner slope is pitched with hard stone 1 foot thick ; the outer slope
is turfed, the berm, or road,- at its foot being composed of stones,
trap rock, and gravel.

The total cost of thus raising the embankment was 42,774
rupees ; there are about 2,900,000 cubic feet, or 107,407 cubic
yards of earthwork, which cost on an average 5^ pence per cubic
yard. The rates for the pitching varied from 5s. to 10s. per
100 superficial feet, and for the turfing 2s. per 100 superficial feet.

The reservoir was full in October 1872, nearly so in 1873, and
1"3 foot of water flowed over the waste weir in August 1874.
Three monsoon seasons have passed, and, with the exception of
a slip of earth from the back slope, in September 1872, which
was soon repaired, all has gone well. This slip may be attributed
to the new earthwork parting from the old slope, possibly caused
by the boggy ground at the toe of the slope.

It was not considered prudent to break through or interfere
•with the continuity of the face wall, or to run the risk of

8 THE nagpi;r watekwokks.

laying the discharge pipe under the full height of the embanlc-
ment ; and as a tunnel round the end woiild have been expensive,
owing to the flat slopes of the valley (Plate 1, Fig. 10), it was
at last determined to bring the pipe over the top of the face wall,
using the masonry in the old sluice as a j)artial support.

The outlet finallj^ adopted was a straining and regulating tower
(Plate 2, Figs. 1, 2, and 3), about 30 feet from the face of the sluice
inside the reservoir. The excavation for the tower was made
within an earthen embankment run out from the old face wall,
the inner toe being supported by piles and planking. It was
carried down to the rock 12 feet below the former bed of the
reservoir, and 18 feet below the w^ater level; and when the ma-
sonry rose above the top the temporary earthen dam was removed.
The internal dimensions of the tower are 1 5 feet by 6 feet ; up to
the former ground level it is of basalt rubble, the space between
the walls being filled with concrete; above that level it is of
sandstone ashlar, with the upper part and the arching set in
Portland cement. The face most distant from the embankment
(Plate 2, Fig. 1 ) is pierced by three openings 2 feet square fitted
with cast-iron sluice doors, moved by cross-heads and screws,
placed in the three pillars resting on a cast-iron girder at the top
of the tower ; by these sluices the water can be drawn from near
the surface.

Sliding in three grooves in the inside of the tower are six
straining frames, carrying copper-wdre gauze strainers of thirty
meshes to the inch ; and outside the three square sluices the
water passes through a f-inch wire netting supported on iron
cross-bars. The upper part of this tower is partly arched over so
as to give an area of 286 superficial feet for convenience in lifting
the strainers working the sluices, &c. The openings between the
arching are covered with removable planking.

A foot bridge of wrought iron, 81 feet long and 3 feet 6 inches
deep, supported in the centre by an ashlar masonry pier, extends
from the top of the embankment to the tower.

The syphon commences at the bottom of the tower. It is
2 feet in diameter, 184 feet long, and from 1 inch to 1^ inch in
thickness. The lip is 31 feet from the toj) of the coping, and
the inner end is commanded by a sluice valve, the spindle of
which is prolonged upwards and terminates in a cast-iron pillar
on the top of the tower, from w^hich it can be worked. Between
the straining tower and the masonry of the old sluice the pipe
is carried on a semi-arch of rubble masonry, abutting at one end
against the rock and the foundation of the tower, and at the

THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS. 9

other ciul against the okl sluice into which it is built. The
width of this arch is 4 feet, and its upper surface is in steps faced
with sandstone ashlar ; on these steps ashlar blocks, 1 foot wide,
carry the syphon, which is also inclosed in rubble masonry.

The wells (A and B) of the old sluice having been filled with
concrete, and the openings in them built up, the pipe is borne
partly on sandstone blocks, and partly on concrete and the masonry
of the old sluice. Walls of rubble masonry are so built across
the pipe as to allow of the flanged joints being surrounded with
puddle, and the remainder of the pipe with concrete.

The pipe passes through an arched opening in the pier which
supports the foot bridge, and where it crosses the puddle trench
it rests on a masonry jjillar, which also carries the end of the
foot bridge ; on the outside of the puddle wall it is supported on
the foundations of the charging well. Between the well, B, of the
old sluice and the support pillar of the bridge, the pipe is carried
over the opening of 16 feet on sandstone blocks resting on two
wrought-iron rolled beams 1 foot deej^, rivetted together. Be-
tween the pillar and the charging well the large pipe, 14 feet in
length, rests, for the distance of 10 feet spanning the main puddle
trench, on stone blocks supported on two wrought-iron girders
8 inches deep. Down the back slope of the embankment the
syphon is sustained on a semi-arch of concrete 5 feet in width, on
the steps formed in the top of which are sandstone blocks, 1 foot
wide, which support the pipe. Cross walls are also provided,
with puddle round the joints and concrete covering the remainder
of the pipe. At its lower end the pipe is curved vertically
upwards and covered with a semispherical cover, carrying one of
Bateman and Moore's 8-inch air valves — an arrangement to prevent
air from the main pipe entering the sj'phon and discharging it.
The outer end of the syphon terminates in a valve house, in which
are inclosed the air valve and two valves, 15 inches in diameter,
placed on a branch which projects at right angles from the syphon.
One of these valves governs the supply to the city, the other is
arranged for scouring out the straining tower and syphon, or for
giving off surplus storage water for irrigation.

The crest of the syphon is in the charging well, and at that

I point the pipe is provided with a branch 4 inches in diameter.
This branch is closed by two valves with a gauge glass between
them ; the upper end of the branch having a funnel mouthpiece
for charging the syphon, when the terminal valves are closed.
The flanged joints of the pipe (Plate 2, Figs. 4 and 5) are secured

10 • THE NAGPUR WATERWOBKS.

india-rubber rope "washer, fits against a recessed slaotilder in the
corresponding opposite pipe ; the faces of the flanges are also pro-
vided with flat india-rubber washers i inch thick, and a turned
projection and recess in the corresponding flanges. The joints
were made good with red-lead and oil ; and the thickness of the
india-rubber washer between the flanges outside, and any small
■ openings round the bolt holes, as well as inside the pipe at the
point of junction, were caidked with iron rust joint cement, after
w^hich the whole of the outside of the joint was covered with
Portland cement before it was surrounded with the puddle.

Where the pipe crosses the puddle in the trench, great care
was taken to bed it firmly. The puddle was allowed to settle after
it had been worked up during one whole monsoon and cold season,
say for eight months; it was then consolidated by repeated blows
from a monkey weighing 10 cwt., and beds were cut in it to receive
the girders. These were filled with well-rammed puddle to jDrevent
water passing along them, and their ends were set in neatly-fitting
sandstone chairs run in with Portland cement. For a few feet
-above, and on each side of the pipe, the puddle was worked up
softer than usual to prevent its clinging to the pipe.

The lift of the syphon, from the sill of the lowest sluice in the
■straining tower to its crest in the charging well, is 14* 55 feet ; and
us the water in the reservoir will never be drawn lower than 5 feet
4ibove that level, the syphon will not be required to lift more than
9 '55 feet, and at this level the valves in the valve house would be
5 • 2 feet under the surface of the water.

The total cost of the outlet, including the straining tower, foot
bridge, charging well, and valve house, was 28,935 rupees. The
rates were, for ashlar from Is. to 2s. per cubic foot, for basalt
rubble from 10s. to 16s. per cubic yard, and for concrete 8s. per
cubic yard. The cast-iron sluices, valves, &c., were obtained
Tinder a lump contract.

The new waste weir (Plate 2, Figs. 6 and 7) consists of a curved
wall, 200 feet long by 3 feet thick, capped with ashlar, protected
■on each side by training walls 120 feet in length. The water
flows over the weir into a rock cutting, which for the first 150
feet has a fall of 1 in 45, converging from 150 feet to 60 feet in
width ; from thence the inclination increases up to 1 in 40. The
sides of this cutting being rocky, little masonry was required, and
the cost was only 8,214 rupees.

The main and city distribution pipes work under an average
head, when the reservoir stands at low watei', of from 30 feet to
•60 feet. As there are few high houses in Nagpur, this pressure is

THE NAGPI^R WATERWORKS. 11

considered sufficient, and all the water is supplied on the ground
level. The service is almost entirely a public one, the water
being given off from self-closing standards, at intervals of about
100 yards along the streets, only a few houses being as yet sup-
plied with private taps or cisterns. Fire-cock air valves are also
placed at every 1 00 yards apart.

The cast-iron piping was supplied by Messrs. E. Maclarcn and
Co., of Glasgow, at rates of 70 rupees 12 annas to 72 rupees
8 annas per ton delivered in Bombay ; but the railway carriage
raised the cost to an average of nearly 117 rupees delivered in
Xagpiir, The contract for the pipes was signed in Nagpur on the
1st of February, 1871, and the first consignment was received on
the 15th of the following July, it having been shipped via the
Cape of Good Hope.

The total cost of the works, including engineering expenses, a
bungalow at the reservoir for the engineer in charge, and a road
2^ miles in length to Nagpur, was 395,320 rupees, or say £40,000,
representing a rate of 9s. 5d. per head, or £31,500 per million
gallons supplied per day. This does not, however, give a perfectly
correct idea of the cost, as a portion of the embankment previously
existed, and about 10,000 yards of additional distribution pipes are
still required to bring the supply up to a European standard.

The work was executed under the Author's supervision, partly
by petty contractors, partly by day labourers ; many prisoners
were also employed, the jail authorities being paid for their labour
hy piece-work, at the rates accepted by the petty contractors.

The Intensity of Eainfall and the Proportion flowing from
THE Ground as observed at Nagpur.

Although the general fluctuation of rainfall in India is similar
to that in other parts of the world, yet it has certain well-marked
peculiarities. The first of these is, that the greater part of the
annual rainfall is confined to a few months during the south-west
or north-east monsoons ; secondly, that the greater part of the year
is almost rainless, and thirdly, that during the wet months the
rainfall is much more intense than in temperate countries. To
take two well-known cases on record, a fall of 23^ inches in
twenty-four hours has been measured at Madras, and on another
occasion a depth of 14 inches in twenty-four hours was gauged at
Bombay.

In the Appendix, Table 11., page 23, gives the details of certain
'extraordinary showers which came under the Author's observation

12 THE NAGPTJr waterworks.

at Nagpiir during the monsoon of 1872. The showers range from
0 • 5 inch in depth up to 3 • 92 inches, and the rate of fall or intensity
from 0'163 inch to 4*733 inches per hour. The rainfall, noted in
Table II., is the average of three gauges placed within the catch-
ment area of the Ambajhari reservoir. The quantity of water dis-
charged from the area of 4,224 acres was measured by noting the
amount and the time of rise of the water in the reservoir. These
showers produced a flow varying from almost nothing, in the case
of the shower of 2*24 inches in one hour and twenty minutes on
the 18th of June, up to a discharge of 33,160,380 cubic feet due
to a fall of 2 '2 inches in one hour and twenty minutes on the
16th of September. These facts prove to what an extreme state of
dryness the soil in India is reduced at the end of the hot season, and
how saturated it becomes after heavy rain later on in the monsoon.
In the last column of Table II. is given the proportion of the
rainfall of the various showers which flowed from the ground in
the times noted in column 6. From this it will be seen that, of
the 2'2 inches on the 16th of September, 98 per cent, entered the
reservoir within two hours and fifty minutes.

The consideration of the above remarks naturally leads to the
question, What percentage of the total annual rainfall flows from
the ground and can be impounded ? Almost every drainage area
has, in this respect, peculiarities proper to itself, but the Author
will confine his remarks to the facts observed at Kagpur ; and as
there are two peculiarities which he thinks will be found common
to most cases in India, he wishes first to invite attention to
them.

It will be noticed in Table I. that the average annual rainfall at
Nagpur is 40* 73 inches, of which 37 ' 52 inches fall in the monsoon,
and 3 "21 inches in the dry season. But no dependence can be
placed upon this latter (juantity as a means of water supply, for
careful observations have failed to detect any part as flowing from
the ground into the reservoir. And, secondly, to such a state of
dryness is the ground reduced in the commencement of June, that
a large portion of the first showers of the monsoon are either ab-
sorbed or evaporated, and but a small portion flows from the
ground. The consequence is that the records of the discharge of
the drainage area are confined to about four months, and when
plotted form a curve, owing to the proportion which is discharged,
commencing at zero at the beginning of the monsoon and gradually
increasing as the rains continue. These facts render the stud}'
of the subject much more simple for Nagpur than for places in
England ; because the observations of each year commence under

THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS. 13

the same circumstances, and as it were from a common datum or
point of departure.

Tlie observations on the discharge of the Amhajhari drainage
area (Plate 3) extend over the monsoon months of the years 1869
and 1872. Commencing with 1869, from the 17th of June to the
31st of July a depth of 12-76 inches of rain was gauged; the
quantity of water that flowed from the ground, being about
19,600,000 cubic feet, showed that only 1-25 inch had passed off,
which gives about 90 per cent, as either evaporated or absorbed.
The rainfall for August was 9*61 inches, of which the proportion
discharged was 35 per cent., and for September it was 7 • 41 inches,
of which 44 per cent, flowed from the ground. Up to the end of
each month the total effects were — June and July as above quoted;
June, July, and August, 22*37 inches of rain, and a discharge of
20 per cent. ; up to the end of September, 29 • 79 inches of rain,
and a discharge of 26*8 per cent. In 1872 the proportions were,
for 6*77 inches in June the amount discharged was 4*7 per cent. ;
for 12-70 inches in July, 22 '7 per cent.; for 11-82 inches in
August, 55*8 per cent.; for 7-99 inches in September, 74*4 per
cent. ; and after an interval of dry weather, for the 4*37 inches in
October, 39 - 4 per cent.

The result was that the total discharge increased as follows :
for June 4*7 per cent.; up to the end of July 16 per cent.; up
to the end of August 31 per cent. ; up to the end of September
40 per cent. ; and at the end of October it still remained at
40 per cent. In Plate 3 the horizontal measurements represent
inches of rainfall, and the vertical ones the percentage which
flowed from the ground into the reservoir. Hence it can be ascer-
tained what the discharge of the drainage area will probably be
for different depths of rainfall, as the proportion absorbed will
depend, all other circumstances being equal, on the depth of the
rainfall. Thus, for an average season's fall, or 37-52 inches,
38 per cent, may be expected, or 14-25 inches, equal to 217,120,000
cubic feet. In a season the fall of which was that of the average
of the three driest consecutive years, or 30 inches, the discharge
would be about 28 per cent., or say 8*4 inches. This would
yield 128,000,000 cubic feet, and in a year such as 1868, the driest
on record, when the amount was 19-28 inches, about 15-5 per
cent., or 3 inches would flow from the ground and yield only
46,000,000 cubic feet. These calculations deal only with the flow
from the drainage area. But the actual quantity of water that can
each year, without fail, be utilised, depends not only upon the
fluctuation of the rainfall, and the proportion which flows oif the

14 THE NAGPIR WATERWORKS.

grotincl, "but also upon the cajiacity of the reservoir to store and
modify the fluctuations.

To render this matter as clear as possible, the Author has worked
out, from the diagrams (Plate 3) and a revised twenty-j^ears' record of
rainfall, Table III. (page 24), which shows what proportion of each
year's fall would in all probability have flowed ofi" the ground, and
also the actual depth in inches and quantity in cubic feet discharged
in former years. Taking this as a basis of calculation, nine different
cases have been assumed of reservoirs with varying capacities,
affording different amounts of annual supply. Each case has been
carefully tabulated on the common system of suj)ply and demand,
to indicate what amounts of the water flowing off' the drainage
area could be used, or how much would be wasted ; and also what
would be the minimum storage in the reservoir at any time during
the twenty years under review. The results of these calculations
are given in Table IV. Tables III. and IV. show that the pro-
portions 'between the average, maximum, minimum, and the three
consecutive driest years' rainfall do not correspond with the
equivalent proportions in the yield of the drainage area. Thus the
minimum rainfall is 52 per cent, of the average, while the mini-
mum yield of the drainage area is only 23 per cent, of its average
yield. In the same way the yield of 37 inches, an average year's
fall, would be 38 per cent., and give 215,280,000 cubic feet; bxat
the average yield of the drainage area is only 204,520,000 cubic
feet. This matter requires attention, as the working out of
Table IV. will show, where the storage and the supply are given
in terms both of the rainfall and of the yield of the drainage area.

It will be seen from Table IV. that the present reservoir, with
a capacity of 240,000,000 cubic feet, can store 117 per cent, of
the average yield, or 106 per cent, of the average rainfall; and
that it can supply from 120,000,000 to 140,000,000 cubic feet per
annum, which represents from 58 per cent, to 68 per cent, of the
average yield, and from 77 per cent, to 82 per cent, of the rain-
fall. The average annual waste is from 84,000,000 to 62,000,000
cubic feet, and the smallest storage in any year is equal to from
fifteen up to one hundred and forty days' supply, according to the
quantity used. To afford a supply of 180,000,000 cubic feet, or
88 per cent, of the average yield, and 96 per cent, of the average
rainfall, the case marked No. 9 shows that the reservoir must store
340,000,000 cubic feet, a quantity equal to 150 per cent, of the
average rainfall and to 166 per cent, of the average yield of the
drainage area. The number of days' supply which it is necessary
to store varies from six hundred and fifty-six up to seven hundred

THE NAGPlTv WATERWORKS. 15"'

and tliirty among the cases cited, but for perfect safety the reser-
voir should contain two years' supply.

The quality of the water discharged by the drainage area is.
shown by the following analysis, made by the Chemical Examiner
to the Government of Bengal in I860 : —

In 70,000 Grains :—

Grs.

Solid residue 6*9

Organic Matter 1'8

Silica 0-G

Carbonate of Lime 1-41

Carbonate of Magnesia 1-59

Chloride of Sodium 0 • 42

Sulphate of Soda a trace

Carbonate of Soda 1-08

That sample was taken from the old tank, but as the area and the-
depth and capacity of the reservoir are now largely increased, th&
probability is that the water is purer.

Evaporation.

In India a most important matter for consideration is the-
amount of evaporation. Not only is a large portion of the actual
rainfall thereby lost before it flows off the ground during the
monsoon months, but a lai-ge quantity is evaporated from the
surface of the reservoir during the long, hot, and dry season,
extending from October to June. During this time no portion of"
the average rainfall of 3 "21 inches flows off the ground, although
the actual surface of the reservoir is raised by the rain which
falls upon it.

To determine the quantity evaporated from the surface is a
matter of diflSculty. But the Author during the dry season of
1872-73 attempted, by carefully observing the level of the water
in the reservoir, and by comparing the result with the existing
meteorological circumstances, to estimate the amount. The result
is given in Table V. It will be observed from column 2, that the
total loss of water from all causes during the dry season of two
hundred and forty-two days, extending from the 10th of October,
1872, to the 9th of June, 1873, was a depth of 7 feet, or at the
average rate of 0*0289 foot per day. This at once disposes of the
large amounts of 8 feet, and even 10 feet, sometimes asserted to be
the evaporation in India during the dr^' season. From columns 5-
and 8 it will be seen that this diminution varied from 1 foot iiOi

16 THE NAGPtJR WATERWOEKS.

twenty-two clays, or 0'045-i foot per day, to 1 foot in forty-two
days, or 0*0238 foot per day, and that, commencing with a diminu-
tion of 0-0286 foot in October and Xovember, it fell to 0-0238 foot
in December and February, rising to 0 • 0454 foot in April and May,
and finally declining to 0-0303 foot during May and June. The
Author believes that this wave-like rise and fall in the total loss to
the reservoir is due to the increase and decrease of the evaporation,
and this is confirmed by the meteorological observations in column
15. These show that when the comparative humidity of the air
was least the diminution was greatest, as during the period from
the 15th of April to the 7th of May, and that when the air was
most humid, during December and February, the diminution was
least. It will be noticed that the period of maximum loss occurred
when the comparative humidity was the least recorded, viz., 0-37.
Columns 12, 13, and 14 prove that the greatest loss of water does
not occur when the temperature of the air is greatest ; for both
the maximum and the mean temperatures were less during April
and May, and the maximum evaporation in April, when the total
loss varied from 0-0498 foot to 0-0454 foot per day, was less
than during May and June, when the temperature was highest, and
the loss was only 0 - 0303 foot per day. The temperature of the
water at a depth of 5 feet below the surface generally agreed,
within 1", with the mean temperature of the air ; thus in June it
varied from 90° to 92° ; and on the 24th of May, 1873, the tem-
perature of the water flowing in the river Kanhan was 96° at

9 A.M.

It is believed that a near approximation to the quantity of water
evaporated, out of the total daily loss shown in column 7, will
be arrived at by deducting 200,000 cubic feet per daj^ for the
quantity used in the city, and for soakage through the ground
on which the reservoir stands. This is the basis of calculation in
the quantities and depths stated in columns 9 and 10, in which
the amounts of evaporation vary from 163,357 cubic feet, and
0-0107 foot up to a maximum of 506,350 cubic feet, or 0-0357 foot
per day. From the figures given in column 10 it is found that
the evaporation amounted to 3-75 feet, but to this must be added
3 inches of rainfall, registered in various small showers from
October to June ; so that the total depth evaporated may be taken
at 4 feet, which, distributed over the two hundred and forty-two
days, gives an average of 0*0165 foot, or 0* 198, say ^ inch per day.

The importance of the question of evaporation to the reservoir
at Nagpur may be inferred from columns 3 and 6. The total loss
of water during the season amounted to 104,180,000 cubic feet,

THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS. 17

out of which, by the above calculation, 55,781,000 cubic feet were
evaporated, leaving only 48,399,000 cubic feet as used or absorbed :
in other words, of the total quantity lost to the reservoir during the
dry season the proportion evaporated was 54 per cent.

Fluctuation of Rainfall in India and in other Places.

In designing reservoirs, not only should the amount of annual
rainfall be considered, but the fluctuations to which it is liable.
In England the question has long received careful study, and
certain rough approximate rules have been arrived at, so that
an idea can be formed of the variations to which the mean annual
quantity is subject. In designing these works, however, the Author
had some difficulty in deciding on this matter, as it was his first
work in India, and as it was said that rules good for England
were inapplicable to the tropics. Accordingly, the Author was led
to analyse the records of rainfall at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay and
Xagpur, at the same time comjiaring them with the records kept
for longer or shorter periods in other places in different parts of
the world. Tlie results, with subsequent additions, are epitomised
in Table YI. To arrive at a common standard of comparison,
the mean annual amount of rain has been adopted, and in doing so
care has been taken to admit no records which do not extend over
at least nineteen years. In all cases this mean annual amount,
varying as it does from 16*44 inches at Prague to 76 '80 inches at
T'ombay, is taken as unity ; and the proportions above or below
are expressed as unity plus a decimal part, where it rises above
the mean annual amount, or a decimal part of it where it falls
below.

The points which have received attention are the percentages in
the number of years whose rainfall is above or below the average ;
the average fall of all the years when the rainfall rises above the
average, and Avhen it is below it ; the average rainfall of the
three driest conseciitive years ; the maximum and minimum yearly
rainfall, with the range or extreme difference ; the number of
periods of three consecutive years of rainfall below the average
which may be expected from the records to occur in everj^ hundred
years ; the greatest number of consecutive years in which the fall
of rain is below the average ; and, lastly, the average rainfall of
the greatest number of consecutive years below the average.

By working out one case, the modus operandi will be understood,
and an opinion can then be formed of the value to be attached to

[1874-75. N.S.] C

18 THE NAGPLR ^YATEKWOKKS.

the Author's doJuetious. For this purpose Calcutta is selected.
The average annual rainftill for thirty-seven years, from 1836 to
1872, is 66 • 75 inches. During this period there were sixteen years
when the rainfiill was above, and twenty-one years when it was
Lelow the avei-ago, giving percentages of 43 and 57 respectively.
The average f;\ll of rain in the sixteen wet years was 77*47 inches,
which, expressed in terms of 66*75, the mean annual fall con-
sidered as unity, is 1*16. In the same way the average fall of
rain in the twenty-one dry j'ears is 58*6 inches, or 0*88 of the
mean annual fall. The average fall of the three years 1836, 1837,
and 1838, all of which were dry, was 47*33 inches, or 0*71 of
66 • 75 inches considered as unity. The wettest year on record was
1871, when the fall was 93*31 inches ; and the driest 1837, when
it was only 43*61 inches. These quantities, reduced to terms of
the general mean average, give 1 * 4 and 0 • 65 respectively, and
the difference between them is 0 * 75.

During these thirty-seven j-ears, there were six periods of three
consecutive years each when the average rainfall was below the
mean, viz., 1836-38, 1839-41, 1843-45, 1851-53, 1856-58, and
1865-67; therefore, in the same proportion, 16*2 such periods
may be anticipated in every hundred years. The rainMl of each
of the six years. 1836-41, was below the general mean, and as
the average of those six years was 54 -44 inches, it is expressed
as 0 * 83 of the general mean 66 * 75 inches.

Table ^'I., with its record of foxu'teen places situated in every
qiiarter of the globe, the observations at which extend over periods
varviuiT from nineteen to sixtv vears. shows a similaritv in the
results obtained, notwithstanding the differences of climate, geo-
graphical position, and the varying amounts of the mean annual
rainfall. A perfect agreement cannot be looked for, but the nature
of the fluctuations is the same, and it may be expected that, as
rainfall observations are extended, the difference will become better
understood. In the majority of instances, the number of dry years
exceeds the wet ones in the proportion of 54 * 2 to 45 * S, the greatest
divergence being 7 * 8 per cent., in the case of New Bedford, U.S.
AVith regard to the average fall of all the years when the rain
is in excess, the accordance is very striking, the average being
1*19, and the greatest difference, in the case of Madras, only
amounting to 9 per cent. Again, the proportion of the fall of the
years when the amount is scanty is 0 * 83, or within 6 per cent,
of Madras and Hobart Town, the two extreme results. For
the period of the three consecutive driest years, the average of
all the observations is 0*76, and the greatest divergence from

THE NAGPUR WATERAVORKS. 19

tin's is in the case of Madras, where it amounts to 11 per cent.
Taking into consideration the niaxinnmi fall, the average of all
the cases being 1*52, the greatest diiierence is 30 per cent, at
IMadras. In like manner the average of the minimum fall is 0 • 59 ;
the greatest departure from which is again at Madras, where it
is 21 per cent. Thus, as the average range is 0-D3, it differs from
^[adras by ol per cent ; but in the case of maximum and minimum
falls, it must be remembered that the records are for single years
of the greatest known extremes, and a perfect accordance is not
to be anticipated. The general average of the periods of three
consecutive j^ears' rain below the mean, which may occur in every
hundred years, is 20*3, the greatest difference being at Calcutta,
where it is 16*2.

In the various cases recorded, periods of from nine consecutive
years downwards have occurred, in all of which the fall of rain
has been below the average. This is a matter which does not
allow of an average being struck ; but it is a guide to w^hat may
occur. The mean fall of the greatest number of consecutive dry
years agrees almost exactly with that of all the years below the
average, and the general average of all the cases in the last column
is 0 • 82, within 1 per cent, of the general mean of all the years of
minimum fall. The Author does not wish, from the foreo-oino-
remarks, to be regarded as advocating a strict rule to be applied
in all cases, or as urging new views on the subject, but merely as
dii'ecting attention to certain general and broadly-marked features,
common to all parts of the world ; and particularly as pointing-
out ^their applicability to India, notwithstanding the other pecu-
larities of the rainfall in that country. "^

' No inquiiy likely to throw light on the investigation of this important subject
whould, however, be neglected. The sua, as the great source of light and heat
is the principal agent in producing rain. Were tliis not capable of proof on other
grounds, the results in Table VI. would lead the mind to look for a single force
continually acting on all parts of the globe, to produce the general uniformity
there observed.

During the past few years it has been suggested that the periods of fluctuation
( pf the spots on the sun's disc bear a relation to the fluctuations of rainfall, similar
to those which have been demonstrated in the case of terrestrial magnetism. To
test the truth of this statement, a comparison was instituted between tlie fluctua-
tions in tlie rainfall at the fourteen places referred to in Table VI., and the solar
spot periods from Scliawbe's observations, as given by Proctor, from 182(j to 18(39.
The latter included four periods of maximum spot frequency, viz., 1828-30,
1836-38, 1847-49, and 1859-61 ; and four periods during which the suns disc was
almost free from spots, viz., 1832-34, 1842-44, 1854-56, and 18G6 and 1867. No
satisfactory result or accurate deductions can be drawn from this test; but during

C 2

20 the nagpur waterworks.

Concluding Eemarks.

In conclusion the Author would sxiggest to the younger mem-
bers of the profession who wish to enter the Public Service in

the period when the spots are about a maximum, great fluctuations in rainfall
occur, principally, but not without many exceptions, in the direction of an excess
above the mean annual fall ; and during the time when the sun is least obscured,
the fluctuations approach near to the average or fall below it. Moreover, a longer
period elapses during which the spots are fewer than when the obscuration is
great. The proportion is as 38 to 62 ; which corresponds, as will be seen in
Table VI., to within 8 per cent, of the average of the percentages in the numbers
of the years which rise above or fall below the average, and is in agreement
with the cases of Barbadocs and New Bedford. Taking now these proportions
of the spot curve, 38 and 62, and comparing them with the average amount
of the fall of years above and below the mean, which is shown in Table VI.
to be 1"19 and 0"83, and which are to each other as 59 to 41, they are almost
complements of each other ; thus 38, the proj^ortion of the spot curve correspond-
ing to the maximum, added to 59, the proportion of the rainfall in years above
the average, is equal to 97 ; while 62, the proportion of the spot curve cor-
responding to a minimum, added to 41, the proportion of the rainfall in years
below the average, is equal to 103. From Table VI. it appears that the avernge
number of periods of three consecutive dry years per hundred years is 20 • 3 ; that
is, at distances apart of 4*92 years, agreeing, within 8 per cent., with the half
of the ten-year period, which, according to Schawbe's observations from 1826-
69, separates the fluctuations of the solar spots. Table VII. is a statement of
the rainfall in inches, at the fourteen places in Table VI., during the three-
year maximum and minunum sun-spot periods from 1828-67. If the sun-spot
periods do afi"ect directly the fluctuation of rainfall, this Table should show an
increase and decrease in the total amounts of rainfall during the three-year
maximum and minimtim sun-spot periods ; but no such wave-like rise and fall in
the amount of rain is found, for any long period, through anyone series, excepting
in the case of Prague; all the other cases, with slight exception, being more or
less confusing. Turning now from individual cases, to the consideration of the
sum of the results of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Greenwich, and Prague, extend-
ing over the six periods from 1836-67, as given in Table VIII., the average total
fall is 689 "23 inches; a comparison of tliis amount with the actual total falls
does not show an approach to a satisfiictory result, except in the four latter periods,
extending from 1847-67. But it is only in the case of the seven places in Table IX.
which extend over the four periods from 1847-67, or that of the nine places in
Table X., extending only over the three periods from 1854-67, that there is
any approach to a wave-like rise and fall in the amount of rain, corresponding
with the maximum and minimum sun-spot periods. In the present state of
knowledge of the subject, the connection between sun-spot periods and the
amount of rainfall is not capable of demonstration ; and even assuming the
results of the short periods dealt with in Tables IX. and X., and the last four
periods in Table VIII., to represent the amount of the fluctuation due to the
solar-spot periods, yet it is so small (the extreme average fluctuation amounting
to only about 13 per cent.) that, when compared with the other larger and well-
established fluctuations shown in Table VI., it may for professional purposes

THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS. 21

India, that in a project, such as this, they may be called on not
only to prepare the plans, sections, working drawings, and spe-
cifications, but also to study great natural laws in the general
design ; and during the construction of the works they will not
have the assistance of the trained staff of a large contractor, but
may have to arrange, prepare, and work all the necessary plant
and organise the workpeople. A knowledge of accounts is a
most useful acquisition; in India this is almost indispensable,
as nearly all Government engineers have to keep their own
accounts and receive and disburse the money expended on the
works. But the most important matter for special attention
in carrying on their duties will be, the exercise of careful personal
supervision of every detail of construction, and of all the materials
with which they have to deal : for the subordinate inspection
at their disposal is not of the highest class, nor is it implicitly to
be relied upon.

The communication is accompanied by a series of drawings and
diagrams, from which Plates 1 to 3 have been compiled.

be neglected. Possibly the mode of investigation adopted by the Author may
not be the correct one : it may be that tlie effect produced by the sun's action ia
not contemporaneous on all jjurts of the globe; yet it is difficult after an inspec-
tion of Table VI., and considering the vast forces at work, to think that such is
the case. The Author does not feel justified, from the result of the above
investigation, nnd with the materials at present at his disposal, in drawing other
or more exact deductions ; but he hopes the subject will receive the attention it
merits from those better able to deal with it than himself. He is, however,
of opinion that attention should in all cases be directed to general facts, and the
mind be withdrawn from too close a study of variations within limited areas, as he
conceives it will be easier to work from well-ascertained principles, common to the
whole world, down to the details of particular countries, rather than the reverse.

[Appendix.

THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS.

APPENDIX.

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THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS.

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Cth October . . . | [|

18th Juno .
iJril July
lOth July .
rith July .
'Jtli Auguat
10th August
24th August
7th September

IGth September

THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS.

Table III. — Pkobabi.e Discharge of Water from the Dkainace Area of 4,224
acres, as deduced from the diagrams (Plate 3), aud the Kaineall Eecokd
for each Year from 1854-5 to 1872-3.

Date.

1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873

Average

Monsoon
llaiufull.

inches.
40

48
24
44
33
31
29
44
40
43
37
28
38
41
53
19
32
37
44
43
24

Proportion
flowing

from
Ground.

Depth

Flowing

from
Grouml.

04 i

33 !

0-400
0-215
0-400
0-345
0-315
0-285
0-400
0-400
0-400
0-3S0
0-280
0-388
0-400
0-400
0-155
0-320
0-380
0-400
0-400
0-217

37-00

inches.
19-36

5-17

It ' lO

11-54
10-04

S-40
17-80
10-36
17-30
14-24

8-11
14-81
16-40
21-49

3-00
10-27
14-19
17-94
17-46

5-26

Yield of the
Drainage Area.

13-343

cuhic feet.
296,240,000

79,120,000
272,320,000
176,640,000
154,500,000
128,800,000
272,320,000
250,240,000
264,960,000
218,960,000
125,120,000
226,3-20,000
252,080,000
329,360,000

46,000,000
158,240,000
217,120,000
274,160,000
266,800,000

80,900,000

204,516,000

Note. — The rainfidl of the years 1872 and 1873 differs from that given in
Table I., since in 1871 the rainfall has been ganged at Ambajhan', 3 miles
from Nagpiir.

THE NAGPUR WATEUWORKS.

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THE NAGPl^'R WATERWORKS.

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THE NAG PUR WATERWORKS.

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to
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i-H

00
I-H

'•

= 1

-i

•^

General ave-1
rages . ./

ijrl

-=~ "-0:5

— 1 >: Z

01 rt

" 00 - *'

.3 ■.= "^

jj- C TO

. ^ "^ ^

M "H -^ •"

t- — ^ H

■g = o .2 •=
*- - ^

~ - .1 _- 3

tc .i >" « ■_

.X ... >':3x 5

;- to , &( . I jD

i 3 ^,^;S = -

1., X -o s ?? J2
■ -I -.:iS

•3 d 2 4. = ^
-?? £:>2 3-

"o S ~ ■

=l''i

CI .a

^ m

: o — -r;

3;i|^|.5; = oc;

-2 C^ 22

^ -T * -3 — "^

.- p 2 g ^ -

; - ■= 3 1; ^

~~ ^ -, J.

r- » Ci » -^ CI *> ■"

-^ c - o

3 o "o '^

^ <y 01 00

2 :. s>-

3 01 >j ^
"3 SCO'S

CI *>

Place.

Calcutta . . .
Bombay .
Madras .
Nagpiir
Mauritius .
Barbadoes
Adelaide .

Hobart Towu
Cape Town .
New York

Kome

Greenwich

New Bedford, U.S.

Prague

THE NAGPUK WATERWORKS.

Table VIl. — Rainfall during tin

Average.

Inches.
66-75

76-80

48-60

42-95

56-07

21-80

22-71

24-21

42-77

30-18

25-04

41-40

16-44

Maximum,
1828-30.

259-49

107-19

18-001
34-30
28-60]

31-50]
25-20
27-20 I

36-00
58-10
57-50

Minimum,
1832-34.

80-90

83-90

151-60

Totals.

22-80
26-00
13-00

19-30
23-00
19-60

43-80
37-90
40-10

10-88
19-35
10-13

61-80

61-90

121-80

40-36

74-091

71-39 215-95

70-47)|

18-45)

37-12i 94-57

39-00

Ma.ximum,

183C-38.

Inches.

45
43
52

87
64
50

44
49
52

39
61
99

991

78)

68
26
33

27
65
41

30
25
31

27
21
23

38
34
34

18
16

Totals,

141-99
203 -3{
146 -2J

571

51 134-:

90 )

80]
10}
40)

10
00
80

10
70
00

63
63
00

87-30

71-90

106-80

51-21

THE NAGPCR waterworks.

aAXiMCM and MiNiJiTOi Scn-Sfot Pebiods.

Inc

Jlinimum,
1842-41.

Maximum,
1347-49.

Slinimum,
1854-56.

Maximum,
1859-61.

Minimum,
1865-67.

hes.

Totals.

Inches.

Totals.

Inches.

Totals.

Inches.

Totals.

Inches.

Totals.

76-111
G3-34
73-86

213-31

i 72-36)

i 58-69

70-51)

201-56

66-47)

70-40

64-23

201-16

68-60
52-61
89-19

210-46

61-58
65-74
72-73

200-05

95-161

59-27

65-40)

219-83

67-31)

73-42J

118-88)

259-61

89-79)

35-10

71-08)

195-97

81-84)

74-65

106-08

262-57

73-46)

92-39

73-57)

239-42

3(5-48)
50-28
65-36)

152-12

80-99)

; 54-76

39-8l)

175-56

43-20)

32-82

46-99

122-51

55-14)

27-64

37-18

119-96

41-86)
51-39
24-37)

117-62

••

(48-40)
24-04
(44-33

113-77

29-48)
44-50
40-89

114-87

38-16)
41-01}
53-72)

132-89

•■

(39-45)
42-66
(46-23)

128-34

56-87)

45-17

68-73)

170-77

44-73)
20-57
35-97

101-27

••

( 42-481
62-85
53-04

158-37

45-11)

73-53

46-37

165-01

55-08
60-44
71-07

186-59

••

20
17
16

32)
19

54-39

27-611

19-74

25-44)

72-79

15-35)

23-15

24-92

63-42

••

23
13
26

GO)

63-28

14-46)

, 23-621

33-51)

71-59

30-56)

18-25

22-73

71-54

28-31)

21-05

28-19

72-55

23-07)
23-55}
22-27)

68-89

26
24
18

82}
78

69-87

; 22-38)
, 23-25
■ 24-62)

70-25

20-05)

24-57

19-48)

64-10

36-72)

29-12

25-44)

91-28

18-67)
.19-21
22-96

60-84

32
41
30

98
37
38

110-73

64-85)

36-80

31-74)

133-39

■■

••

32
21
30

90)
30
60 1

84-80

31-60)
25-40
20-60)

77-60

18-80)
32 -.SO
28-30)

1
79-40 ,

22
24
24

60)
00
00 1

72-10

17-80)
30-20
; 23-70J

71-70

18-70)

21-10

22-20)

62-00

25-90)
32-00
20-30

1
78-20

28-60)
30-10
28-50

87-20

34
45
36

60)
00
20 )

115-80

40-80)

36-20

32-40)

109-40

••

9
17
23

501
53
68

50-71 .

23-36)

16-98

15-80)

56-14

16-45)

17-74

14-97)

49-16

19-18)

20-65

16-55)

56-38

12-151

17-58

15-57)

45-30

THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS.

•A

S,:

5'-?

i ==

- *c

■5 0

—

'S'5

rfH

■-M

1-H

-H

3»

c"--^

'-0

■S 0

C »-H

r-H

«0

— C^

r— (

I-

S t^

. 'O

r-i

?• "—1

1— ( *

-tl

"S 1—1

t»

C-;

■<tl

co^

liO

ii-i rH

— c^

1— <

I— 1

f=i

Sca-

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T— 1

^r^

-H

£«

€-1h

1— 1

-+I

I'o

"" C4

(>4

1—1

. 1-H

"-H

■^

■— '

T-i

.E ^

■5 CO

cjo

.9x

C r— <

T-^

« "

~(M

I— 1

I-

§^-

.«

£05

rtl

tj rH

T-H

-fl

-*l

C -+1

-*i

03 z^

"~ I— (

9-1

m»«

-H

St~

-+i

•^ ■

,-^

— 0

"tl

1— t

•

l-H

0
H

<&
u

a
2

> to

•iH

THE NAGPUR "WATEKWOriKS.

'r.\r,LK IX. — Eaintall at Seven Places during; the Fon: Maxijum aiul JIimmusi
Svn-Spot Periods, from 1847 to 1SG7.

I'lacc

Average.

Maximum,
1847-19.

Jlininnim,
1854-56.

ila.\iniuin,
1859-61.

JVIinimum,

1MG5-6-.

Calcutta ....

inches.
GG-75

inch's.
201 -5G

inches.

201 -IG

inches.
210-46

inches.
200-05

Bombay ....

76-80

259-61

195-97

262-57

239-42

Madras ....

48-60

175-56

122-51

119-96

117-62

Hobart Town .

22-71

71-59

71-54

72-55

68-89

Cape Town .

24-21

70-25

64-10

91-28

60-84

Greenwich .

25-04

71-70

62-00

78-20

87-20

Prague . < . .

lG-44

5G-14

49-lG

5G-38

45-30

Total and Averagel
Total , . ./

845-89

906-41

766-44

891-40

819-32

Difference above oi
Average Total .

below the'i

+ 60-52

-79-45

+45-51

-26-57

Taf.le X. — Rainfall at Nine Places during the Three Maximum and Minimum
Sun-Spot Periods, from 1854 to 1867.

Place.

Average.

Jlinimum,
1854-56.

Maximum,
1859-61.

Minimum,
1865-67.

Calcutta .
Bombay .
Madras
Niigpur
Mauritius .
Hobart Town
Oape Town .
Greenwich
Prague . .

inches.
75

66
76
48
37
42
22
24
25
16

Total and Average Total

1080

80
60
53
95
71
21
04
44

indies.
201-16

195-97

122-51

116-77

128-34

71-54

64-10

62-00

49 16

Difference above or below the Average
Total

69-14

inches.
210-46

262-57

119-96

114-87

170-77

72-55

91-28

78-20

56-38

69 , 1011-55 ! 117704

+96-35

inches.
200-05

239-42

117-62

132-80

101-27

68-89

60-84

87-20

45-30

1053-48

-27-21

[Mr. Bateman

82 THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS.

Mr. Bateman said lie had listened with great interest and
pleasure to the Paper, as it showed how much the Author, who
was an old pupil of his own, had benefited by the oppor-
tunities of studying the question of providing for the various
contingencies wdth wdiich tlie water engineer had to contend in
constructing waterworks of different kinds. It also showed, to
those who had not been accustomed to investigate such problems,
the vast number of circumstances that had to be taken into account
before an accurate estimate of the yield of districts, or of the works
to be executed, could be arrived at. The Nagpiir Waterworks
seemed to have been carefully designed with reference to the
particular conditions under which they had to be constructed, everj'
difficulty having been foreseen and carefully provided for. The
escape of water, the retention of the water 1)y embankment, the
means by which the water should be discharged through pipes,
the protection of the pij)es that they might not break by unequal
pressure, and other details, had been carried out with perfect suc-
cess. But by far the most important part of the Paper consisted of
the record of the Author's observations upon the great variations in
the rainfall in various parts of the country, and in different seasons,
whether at the commencement of the wet season, or at its ter-
mination. Mr. Binnie had supplied a table, with diagrams, showing
the rise and fall of the rain, and the deviations from the mean
occurring at different periods of the year. He would draw special
attention to a point of great importance, not only in its bearing
on the supply of water, but likewise in all cases where a
free passage of water had to be provided for, namely, the amount
of water flowing off the ground under certain circumstances.
It had been his lot to investigate the subject to a great extent.
In steep hilly districts, where the streams were short, receiving
the water falling uj)on mountain ranges, and where the rainfall
was 2, 3, or 4 inches in twenty-four hours, floods were common
of about 25 cubic feet, and occasionally up to 40 feet, and even
50 cubic feet per second to every hundred acres. On three occasions
referred to by Mr. Binnie during the monsoon of 1872, extending
from June to October, it appeared that the quantity of water flowing
off the ground amounted to between 70 and 80 cubic feet per second
jier hundred acres, being nearly twice as much as the heaviest
floods in the ordinary mountain districts of this country. He
referred especially to the Pennine chain of hills between Lanca-
shire and Yorkshire, where the average rainfall was about
40 inches. He was quite aware that in Cumberland and West-
moreland, where the fall was almost tropical, amounting to

THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS. 33

between 100 and 200 inches in a year — in such a valley, for
instance, as BorroAvdale, leading to Uerwentwater, — the quantity
of water flowing down would probably equal the 70 or 80 cubic
feet per second per hundred acres falling at Ntigpur; but after
it reached Derwentwater it was moderated ; the large surface
prevented its flowing from the lake as rapidly as it flowed into
it. The water discharge in great areas of country which might
be inundated by the overflow of rivers or the flowing from lakes,
although they were fed by mountain ranges, was much smaller in
volume than in the hilly districts themselves. For instance, the
rain at the head of Loch Katrine was occasionally as much as
118 inches in the year, and more than that upon the mountains
ascending towards the summit ; but the heaviest flood from Loch
Katrine itself gave but 12^ cubic feet per second per hundred
acres — not more than half the flood on the range of hills
between Lancashire and Yorkshire. From Loch Lubnaie:, in
the adjacent valley of the Lenny, draining an equal area to
that of Loch Katrine and Loch Venacher, but where the average
was not so great for impounding water as in the valley of
Loch Katrine, the floods were slightly greater. In the valley
of the Clyde, where a large quantity of land was inundated
before the water could be discharged to the sea, the heaviest
floods did not amount to more than 10 cubic feet per second
per hundred acres. He drew attention to these facts (which
were well ascertained, and not mere speculations) because of their
importance in regard to the determination of the dimensions of
bridges, whether in the case of roads or railways, with floods
passing beneath them. Where the whole of the water of a district
had to be stored for waterworks purposes, and the water was col-
lected by flood water-courses or " catch-water " works, it was
necessary that the channels by which the water was conveyed
should be large enough to convey the heaviest floods that might
■occur ; otherwise the rain water would be lost. On these subjects
the Paper contained an amount of valuable information well
worthy the consideration of all persons engaged in similar works.
The Author's calculations as to the space required in order to store
the average quantity of rainfall were very valuable. But in this
country no attempt was made to effect this, although there were
cases in which the amount of storage was so large (as in the case of
some lakes and excessively large reservoirs), that nearly, if not
quite, the average quantity of water might be collected if a regular
quantity were drawn away. If less than the average were drawn,
-of course when the reservoirs were full, the difference between what
[1874-75. N.S.] D

34 THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS.

was drawn and tlie average must necessarily run to waste. But no
engineer who was careful to secure the success of his works, ever
calculated upon collecting as much as the average rainfall. He con-
sidered what might he reasonably calculated upon in two or three
consecutive dry years, and made the capacity of the reservoir suffi-
cient to last over the longest drought that might occur. Of these
there were many records in this country, and they varied greatly
according to the districts. Droughts lasting two hundred and
forty days were not uncommon on the eastern coast of England ;
while one hundred and eighty days might be taken as the maximum
on the western coast. Again, a smaller amount of rain required a
smaller amount of storage than a large amount of rain. All these
calculations had to be taken into account, and carefully determined,
before an engineer coidd be said to have designed works satisfac-
torily to himself, or to those interested in the AA^ater to be
supplied. The loss also, not only by vegetation, but by evapora-
tion, which Mr. Binnie said amounted on an average to -} inch per
day during a long drought in India, was a matter of serious con-
sideration in the case of works designed for so hot a climate. In
England he believed the evaporation through a long drought
was only about jV "^<^^ P®^' ^^Y- The loss also by vegetation
and absorption varied considerably according to the nature
of the country — whether, for instance, it was so steep that the
water would flow from it as from a house-roof, or so flat that it
would scarcely escape at all. But, as the Author had shown, this
depended more upon the capacity of the air for absorbing moisture
than upon the temperature of the air. The air might be so humid
as to be just upon the point of precipitating rain, in which case
no evaporation took place ; or it might be so dry as eagerly to
absorb moisture, and then evaporation was great. He had himself
observed some years ago, that, during the prevalence of an easterly
wind, 5 inches of snow (equal to about |- inch of rain) were
taken up by evaporation in about three weeks, although the
thermometer was below freezing point.

Major W. E. JoiiNsox said he had lately been concerned in the
restoration and improvement of the tank system in the Mysore
country, in which there were no less than thirty thousand reser-
voirs, and in carrying out this work, it had been necessary to
consider the proportion of rainfall running off" the ground. No
accurate data were forthcoming, but from rough observations made
from works in action, it was assumed at starting that not more
than one-fourth of the rainfall on an average found its way into
the reservoirs. In one district in which the soil was light and

THE nagpCr waterworks. 35

sandy, and tlie greater proportion under the plough, even this
was much in excess, and the pi'oportion had there been reduced to
one-sixth. In reference to the collection of surface drainage, the
nature of the soil, and the condition of the surface, were the first
points for consideration. There being a great scarcity of water
in the city of Mysore, he had been sent to inquire into the matter,
and had ascertained that the tanks formerly filled much more readily
than at present. On examination he found that cultivation had
much increased in the catchment basin ; what was before hard,
barren land having been ploughed up. After heavy rain, not a
drop of water found its way into some of the supply or drainage
channels, the whole having soaked into the ploughed land. He
accordingly recommended that, in order to increase the water
supply, the land in the catchment basin should be thrown out of
cultivation. Accurate surveys were now, for the first time, being
made of the drainages and reservoirs in Mysore ; and as they
were extensive, he trusted that valuable data would shortly be
available.

The action of tanks as flood moderators was much more complete
and apparent in a system of tanks than in isolated works. When
the tanks were situated one above the other in chains, each acted
as a moderator to that below, and absorbed, not only so much of the
rainfall as the}' were capable of retaining, but also the excess, which
would be distributed over their greatest area of water spread above
their weir level, and escape gradually to the tanks below, from
which in turn it would be passed oif still more slowly to the
nex-t in succession, and so on. The result of this was that the rain
that might fall in an hour, and but for these tanks would escape
nearly as rapidly in a flood, might take days, and even weeks, to
pass off, the quantity in excess of the caj^acity of the reservoirs
being absorbed and distributed above the weir levels of each, and
transferred slowly and harmlessly. Owing to this, the terminal
tank of a series, although having a greater catchment basin, often
required a less length of waste weir than tanks above it.

Dr. Pole was glad some data had been given on the subject
of evaporation, which was obscure, both practically and theo-
retically. Practically, there were but few trustworthy facts on
record, and it was interesting to know what occurred in India,
where the heat and the dryness were often excessive. The
data given in the Author's tables appeared to be deduced b}- a
somewhat complex method, but still they were valuable as
expressing results on a large scale. Theoretically, the know-
ledge of the subject was chiefly due to John Dalton, who had

D 2

36 THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS.

prepared tables for calculating the evaporation under different
circumstances ; these tables had been often reprinted, and he was
not aware that any subsequent investigations had either, on the
one hand, invalidated them, or, on the other hand, had added
anything important to them. The tables were, however, some-
what troublesome to use in consequence of their peculiar form, and
he had endeavoured to find a formula that would bring them into
a more convenient shape. Mr. Bateman had stated that the rate of
evaporation depended not only on the temperature, but also on the
degree of dryness of the air. Dr. Pole would add a third condition
that also materially influenced the evaporation, namely the wind,
for it was found that evaporation proceeded much more rapidly
under a brisk wind than when the atmosphere was calm. Com-
binino- these three elements, he had found that the results of Dalton's
tables might be roughly represented by a formula as follows :
if T = temperature of the atmosphere in degrees Fahrenheit ; t =
the dew point, or the lower temperature at which moisture began to
be deposited (and which, when compared with T, showed the state
of drjmess of the atmosphere) ; V = velocity of the wind in miles
per hour ; E = evaporation in inches per diem from a water surface ;
and A a certain numerical coefficient, then,

E =

A (100 - wy

The value of A would be about 80 for high or summer tem-
peratures, increased to about 100 for low or winter ones. The
formula was, he must state, purely empirical, and only professed
to give a rough approximation to Dalton's results, in a somewhat
more convenient form.

Dalton's tables did not provide for the case where the tempera-
ture of the water differed materially from that of the air ; probably,
according to the experiments of Mr. Dines and others, in this
case T should be made to represent the temperature of the water
surface, not that of the atmosphere. •

He had endeavoured to check Mr. Binnie's evaporation results
by Dalton's rules, and although there was some difficulty in making
the comparison, owing to the dew point not being given, he found
a tolerable agreement in the earlier portions of the table ; but the
later ones he thought were too low; for under the great heat and
<lryness marked in some of the lower lines, the evaporation might
be expected to be greater than was there given, unless there were
exceptional circumstances, not explained.

Dr. Pole believed that experiments on a large scale on evapora-

THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS. 37

tion, both from water and land surfaces, were mucli to be desired,
and that any engineer who had the opportunity, and would take
the trouble to carry them out efficiently, would be doing a great
service, not only to the engineering profession, but to science in
general.

Mr. KoGERS Field said he had taken great interest in the subject
of evaporation, on which, during the last three or four years, he had
been carrying out a series of experiments for the Royal Society.
He could confirm Dr. Pole's statement as to the want of reliable
information on the subject. The records of meteorologists were for
the most part worthless. The evaporator employed was generally
nothing but a small metal vessel, which, when exposed to the sun,
heated the water so much that an abnormal amount of evaporation
was obtained, not in the least agreeing with the amount of evapora-
tion taking place from a natural water surface. Fi'om preliminary
experiments, a few years ago, he was led to suspect that that was
the case ; he had therefore sought the means of ascertaining the
real evaporation from a large surface of water. He had buried in
the ground an iron tank G feet square and 2 feet deep, and em-
ployed an appai-atus Avhich would measure the evaporation from it
to the hundredth part of an inch — of course taking the rainfall
into accoiint. Using the tank as a datum, he had compared with
it the evaporators recommended by difterent authorities, and the
result was that the evaporation from them was two or three times
the amount obtained fi-om the tank. The amount obtained from
the small metal vessels was 40 to 50 inches per annum ; while that
obtained from the tank was 18 to 23 inches only. As to the mode
of calculatiug the evaporation, he thought that the foi'mula of
Dr. Dalton was the correct one. The most convenient mode was
to take the elastic force of vapour at the temj)erature of the water,
from that to subtract the elastic force of vapour at the tempera-
ture of the dew point, and multiply the difterence by a constant,
which would give the result in inches per diem : roughly speaking,
this constant multiplier Avas one-half. Of course the wind and
other circumstances would afiect the result; but he did not think
that there were sufficient data available at present to found a
formula with regard to these points. There was no question, how-
ever, that evaporation increased as the wind increased, so that
with much wind the multijdier would be greater than one-half.
In Mr. Binnie's table the first datum was wanting, viz., the tem-
perature of the water ; but it might be assumed, from what had
been stated, that it was the same as the temperature of the air.
On that assumption he had calculated what the multiplier would

38 THE NAGPUB WATERWORKS.

be in the cliflferent periods. The first three periods, from October
to November, from November to December, and from December
to February, gave very nearly the same multiplier, viz., 1 -00 ; and
the other four periods gave multipliers varying from • 36 to • 50,
and averaging • 42 — not quite a half. He could not help thinking,
with regard to the three first periods, that the data were not
complete. Under ordinar}^ circumstances in nature, as far as his
experience went, a multiplier as high as 1 • 00 was not obtained ;
he therefore imagined that in the three periods referred to the
temperature of the water was higher than the temperature of the
air, or that some data were missing. The multipliers given by
the last four periods, on the other hand, agreed very closely with
those obtained from his experiments. Great service would be done
to meteorological and hydraulic science if these experiments were
carried further, including observations on the temperature of the
water at the surface. The temperature mentioned in the Paper
was at 5 feet below the surface. This might occasionally differ
considerably from the temperature at the surftice, which was
what had to be taken into account in calculating the evapoi-a-
tion.

The Astronomer Eoyal, Sir G. B. Airy, said he was not prepared
to enter into the engineering question, but he desired to say a few
words on the concluding portion of the Paper, Avith reference to
the possible relation between the spots on the sun and the amount
of rainfall. The subject had engaged the attention of the Board
of Visitors of the Eoyal Observatory, who some time since applied
for a regular photographic register of the spots on the sun. This
had been arranged after considerable delay, and he hoped that the
observations would cast light upon the subject. The suggestion,
that the amount of rainfall might depend upon the visible state of
the sun's surface, naturally led to the idea that it might be con-
nected with the amount of heat radiated directly from the sun,
which was measurable by other means. For examining in some
degree the supposed connection between the state of the sun's
surface and the amount of rain, it might be advantageous to com-
pare the observed intensity of heat radiating from the sun with
the registered rainfall. To ascertain the intensity of the radiant
heat, there was at the Eoyal Observatory at Greenwich a ther-
mometer, with blackened bulb inclosed in an exhausted glass
sphere, exposed to the rays of the sun, whose maximum reading-
was taken every day. This thermometer was brought into action,
experimentally, in 1860; but from 1861 the observations had
been taken, under the siiperintendence of Mr. Glaisher, on a

THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS.

iinifonu system; and it appeared best to commenco comparisons
on that year. The rainfall was measured by an extensive series of

rain-gauges.

On considering the applicability of the black-bulb readings to
the subject before the Institution, it appeared unadvisable to
adopt the mean of the daily readings for any length of time as a
measure of the sun's radiant power. In this inquiry, it was not a
question of measuring the sun's heat as it reached the earth
through clouds, but, as nearly as possible, to measure the heat as
it would come from a perfectly pure sky. In the following com-
parison, therefore, only the highest reading of the black-bulb
thermometer in each month was used ; there was, however, placed
in the same table the mean of the readings for every day in
■each month. For the rain, the aggregate of rainfall through each
month must be taken. This operation being completed for each
month, the means of the monthly means of blackened thermo-
meter, and the aggregates of monthly aggregates of rain, were
taken for each year. Then the years were arranged in the order
determined by the order of thermometer-means. Thus the follow-
ing: table was formed : —

Yearly mean Yearly mean
of highest of all
Year. thermometer- ' thermometer-
readnig in readings iu

each month. each month.

Total rainfall
in each Year.

1864
1863

101-8
103-4

■^ inches.
79-2 16-38
84-6 19-67

1862
1861
1869

109-4 83-7 26-45
113-6 89-0 20-56
116-5 90-4 24-02

1867 llS-2 91-0 28-46
1865 118-3 94-0 28-70

1871 119-4 93-1 i 22-30

1870 122-1
1873 123-2
1872 124-3
1868 1 1-25-6
1866 126-4

93-3
94-3

97-8
98-9
95-0

18-55
23-36
30 02
25 15
30-72

THE NAGPUR "WATEEWOEKS.

The means of tlie yearly results in each group gave the fol-

lowing results : —

Means of highest
thermometer-
readings in
each month.

jMeans of

annual

rainfalls.

102-6
113-2
118-6
124-3

in.
18-03

23-68

26-49

25-56

Thus it appeared — what he should not have supposed if he had
not been led by the Paper to look into the matter — that the more
scorching the sun, the greater was the quantity of rain that fell.
The general correspondence of high readings of the black-bulb
thermometer and large rainfalls was remarkable. There were,
however, some anomalies in the details which made it imprudent
at present to draw from this apparent correspondence any absolute
conclusion. This caution was not without reason, for he had ob-
served many instances in which a law seemed at first to be fol-
lowed out, but had afterwards to be set aside. An instance of this
was the supposed law that the daily phenomena of magnetism
recurred in periods of ten or eleven years, a supposition which had
been entirely negatived by an extended series of observations at
Greenwich. The same thing might occur with regard to the
figures cautiously cited by Mr. Binnie. One circumstance would
not be forgotten, namely, that in diiferent parts of the earth the
fluctuations of rainfall had diiferent orders. There appeared, how-
ever, to be, from 1861 to the present time, a distinct connection
between the scorching of the sun and the amount of rainfall. It
was only by following up these observations that the truth in
such obscure matters could be ascertained.

Mr. G. Dines was surprised to learn that a place in British
India, within the tropics, did not appear to have a much greater
amount of rainfall than was experienced in Great Britain at the
same elevation. He had made numerous experiments on the sub-
ject of evaporation, the result of which would be found in the
proceedings of the Meteorological Society for November 1870,^
where he had attempted to show the principles on which evapora-
tion depended, the uselessness of the gauges ordinarily employed,

* Vide rroceeJings of the Meteorological Societ}-, vol. v., p. 190.

THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS. 41

and the reasons of their failure. He had taken up the matter as
an amusement ; but to engineers connected with hydraulic works
it must be of the greatest imjiortance. There was no reason
why there should not be returns of daily evaporation from many
places in England, as regular as those connected with the rainfall.
He had long thoiight that the amount of evaporation in tropical
countries had been overestimated, but had had no opportunit}'
of testing the truth of that opinion until a short time since, when
Captain Toynbee sent him a Paper in which the temperature
of the sea and also of wet and dry bulb thermometers near the
tropics were given. From the figures in that Paper he had calcu-
lated the amoiTnt of evaporation at 55 inches, so far nearly agree-
ing with Mr. Binnie's observations. Mr. Field had found it difficult
to reconcile the figures in the upper part of one of the tables with
those in the lower part. Mr. Dines differed from him as to which
figures were correct ; but possibly they might both be wrong,
and Mr. Binnie might be right. It appeared from the table that
the amount of evapoiation with a mean temperature of 74^ was
greater than with a mean temperature of 92°. High temj)eratures
warmed the surface of the water, but he was not sure whether
they did not retard rather than promote evaporation ; and he had
no hesitation in saying that, supposing the temperature of the
water to remain constant, the evaporation on a cold windy day
would be much greater than it would be under the burning sun of
the tropics in calm weather. Evaporation was greater when the
air was dry than when it was moist, as might be expected. AVhen-
ever' the air was dry the dew point was low. In his oj)inion
the amount of evaporation was proportional to the difference
between the tension of vapour at the temperature of the water
and that of the dew point. That was nothing more nor less
than the old law of Ualton. Experiments he had made with
water, varying in temperature from 180^ downwards, and with
evaporation amounting from 11 inches in a day down to nothing,
proved, almost to a certainty, the correctness of that law.
The equation x (lo — d) = E represented it in a simple form,
in which w represented the tension of vapour at the temperature
of the water, d the tension of vapour at the temperature of
the dew point, and E the evaporation. 'J'here was, however,
one uncertain quantity in the equation which caused the diff"er-
enoe of opinion between Mr. Field and himself, and which
Dr. Pole had tried to remedy by a formula. That was the value
of X. In a room with the doors and windows closed, x maintained
its value steadily, but it was changed by the slightest movement

42 THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS.

of the air, and in his experiments he had found it var}^ from '0118
to -0742. In Dalton's table the value of x would he represented
by the figures -0336, -0472 and -0538. He thought the best
■experiments were those made by Mr. Greaves at the East London
Waterworks, Old Ford, Bow. The only objection he had to them
was that the water was not sufSciently near the edge of the
vessel. He did not suppose that the temperature at Old Ford
differed much from that at Greeuwich, and the Greenwich tables
gave all the figures that were necessary, if figures could determine
the question. He had compared the experiments of Mr. Greaves
with those tables, and had obtained a value for x varying from
•0190 to '0594. He thought that the idea of being able to cal-
culate the amount of evaporation might be abandoned. The lowest
value he had obtained was on a warm, oppressive day. Dalton's
law might be extended in this way. When the temperature of
the water became lower than the temperature of the dew point,
w — d became a negative quantity, and E was negative. This
was what occurred in practice. The moment the temperature of
the water passed below the temperature of the dew point, evapora-
tion ceased and condensation commenced on the surface of the
water ; and for 30° or 40° below the temperature of the dew point
the same formula gave the amount of condensation. But he had
found those experiments very difficult to manage. The vessel in
which the water was contained was alwaj^s covered with a non-
conducting material ; but he could never be certain whether
moisture was not deposited on the outside of the vessel as well as
on the surface of the water. The balances were similar to those
tised by analytical chemists. In one he put the weights, and in
the other the vessel containing the water. He suspended a ther-
mometer from the end of the beam, with the bulb just immersed
in the water, and by noticing the time in which a fixed quantity
of water evaporated he obtained the quantity of water evajDorated
at different temperatures. Out of doors his experiments were of a
ruder character. It was insisted upon that the water in the gauge
must be kept at the same temperature as the bulk of water from
which evaporation was sought, and also that the water should be
kept close to the edge of the vessel, so that it might get the full
effect of the wind. In experiments with two vessels, in one of
which the water was 3 inches below the edge, while the other was
full, the evaporation from the former was 54 per cent, greater
than from the other.

He had prepared a chart of the London rainfall, month by
2nonth, for sixty years, on which he had marked the maximum

THE NAGPUB WATEKWORKS. 43

and minimum periods of sun spots ; but the results were of a
negative character. In the " Thilosophical Transactions " for 1801
wouki be found a Paper by Sir W. Herschell, in which the attempt
Avas made to prove that the price of wheat in the Windsor market
was influenced by the sun's spots.^ The question had been lately
revived by Mr. Meldrum, who thought that cj'cloncs and the
rainfall were influenced by the same cause. A communication had
also been lately presented by Mr. Hennessey to the Royal Society,
with a view to establish a connection between the rainfall at
some -place in India and sun spots;- and at the last meeting
of the British Association it was argued that the amount of
ozone was influenced by the same cause. His investigations led
him to believe that, if the question was ever to be decided, it
would not be by taking the rainfall at any one place, but by
estimating it over the surface of the globe. It would be observed
that in 1808-9 the rainfall at Nagpiir was 20 inches, 5 inches less
than in London ; while in Japan, at the same time, there was an
exceptionally wet period, the amount of rain being 60 inches
above any other year on record. If* two independent workers had
been investigating the matter at that time, one in Japan and the
other in India, their conclusions would have been widely different.
Mr. EussEL AiTKEN observed that in India the rains were affected
by the smallest causes. Eocky or sandy ground, heated by the
sun, kept off the clouds ; but where the ground was covered
with trees, the rain was much more abundant. In the island of
Bombay, within a space of 3 miles the amount of rainfall diflered
8 or 10 per cent. In the Western Ghauts, at Mahableshwur,
the annual rainfall was 300 inches, while within 10 miles, at
Pauchgunny, at the same level, the rainfall was only 50 inches ;
so that deductions from rain-gauges should be accepted with great
caution, and only be regarded as applicable to small areas. The
reservoir of which he had charge, the Vehar Lake, near Bombay,
was practically a rain-gauge with an area of 2 square miles ; and,
although the results did not exactly agree with the records of
smaller ones, he thought they would be interesting to the In-
stitution. Mr. Conybeare, M. Inst. C.E., who constructed the
works,'' calculated the supply on the assumption that the annual
rainfall would be the same as at a village 5 miles distant, where it

' Vide Phil. Trans. 1801, p. 313 et i^eq.

* Vide Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xxii. p. 286.

* A description of these works will be foimd in the Min. of Proc. Inst. C.E.,
vol. xvii. pp. 555-568.

THE NAGPUR WATERWOEKS.

amounted to 120 inches, of whicli lie thought 74^ inches could
be secured, or j\, being about the same proportion as was usually
calculated for England. This, however, was not obtained. The
area of the gathering-ground was 3,515 acres, including the lake, of
1,260 acres. The lake overflowed the waste weir about every three
years. In 1805, a year of average rainfall, the total amount of
water impounded was 5,650,000,000 gallons, the recorded rainfall
beino- 89 inches. He reckoned that between 20 and 30 inches of

Fig. 1.

Million June. July. Au<(. .S-pt. Oct. Xov. Dec. Jan. Fub. ^Slar. Apr. M.iy. Feet.

gallons.

1 i i I 1 I i \ I i i I

Jan. Feb. IM.-ir. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. JSov. Dec.

Jk'ight of Water in Vobar reservoir, Bombay Waterworks.

THE NAGPUB WATERWORKS. 45

the rainfall were absorbed by the ground and evaporated by the
trees during each year. This amount would only apply to a
gathering-ground such as Vehar, of which the soil was soft,
densely covered with trees and grass, and where the rain lasted
about one hundred and twenty days on an average. In 1870, when
the rainfall was 65 inches, the total amount collected in the
reservoir was 4,400,000,000 gallons. This showed that about 75
per cent, of the rainfall from the gathering-ground ran into the
reservoir. In 1871, when the rainfall was exceedingly deficient,
namely, 39 inches, the amount was 2,040,000,000 gallons, being
only 50 per cent, of the rainfall. The amount collected from the
gathering-ground in tropical countries, exclusive of what fell on
the reservoir, and which was of course all impounded, might
vary from 85 to 50 per cent, of the rainfall, and each case must
be judged from the particular circumstances by which it was sur-
rounded. The leakage, together with the evaporation from the
lake, did not exceed 5 inches per month. He calculated the leakage
from the various dams at 1^ inch ; so that the evaporation during
the dry weather, and he thought it would be the same during
the wet weather, would be about 3^ inches per month, or Si feet
per annum ; a very different quantity from the 8 feet or 9 feet
with which reservoirs in hot climates had been usually credited.
Fig. 1 represented the height of water, at various times, in the
Vehar Lake above the Puspolee datum. The figures on the left
hand represented the capacity of the reservoir in million gallons
for each foot of depth ; those on the right, the gauge at the
Vehar Lake tower. The reservoir was completed in 1859, and
overflowed in 1861, 1863, 1866, and 1869. The rainfall in 1863
was 117 inches.

Mr. Greaves observed that the Nagpur waterworks appeared to
have been exceedingly well constructed. The extent of the ga-
thering-ground was inconsiderable, and the I'eservoir was propor-
tionately rather large. It was to be hoped, for the sake of Nagpur,
that some other gathering-ground was available; and if so, it
would be well worth while to expend an additional £40,000 upon
it. To have constructed such works for so small a sum was a
marvellous feat. The value of the old dam was not stated ; and
possibly there was no expenditure on the gathering-ground. Ho
would ask whether the latter was so placed that it was not likely
to be built upon — because a village in the midst of it might pollute
the whole water supply ? It would be well to ascertain whether
some of the ancient reservoirs, bunds, and bridges in India might
not be utilised. With regard to evaporation, he had discarded the

46 THE NAGPUR WATER WOEKS.

idea of estimating it in a form applicable to engineering worts by
the use of wet and dry bulb thermometers, and he had contrived
an instrument (which was exhibited) that would be applicable for
continuous observations, and would give as useful a register of
evaporation as a rain-gauge of rainfall. He agreed that gauges
had hitherto been constructed on a wrong principle. They were
made in a way to absorb the heat, and not so as to keep the tem-
perature the same as that of the water. The gauge should be in a
similar condition to a reservoir, pond, lake, or quiet river, and
therefore would be best if consisting of a piece of the reservoir itself.
The amount of evaporation in the neighbourhood of London was 4-
of the rainfall, and the question was as important as that of the
rainfall. The influence of wind in promoting evaporation did not
appear to have been sufiiciently noticed, particularly in those
countries where winds proverbially named hot were accustomed
to blow. The desiccating power of those winds was, in his opinion,
even greater than simple solar heat or local temperature.

Lt.-Col. A. Strange said that, though not a professional engineer,
he might be allowed without presumption to bear testimony to
the great care and skill with which the Paper had been draAvn up.
It afforded an interesting exemplification of the wide range of the
duties of an engineer ; for it passed, by a natural transition, from
a matter-of-fact subject — that of the construction of a dam — to a
subject in the region of speculative science, viz., the influence of
the sun ujDon meteorological phenomena. It was evident that the
sun was, directly or indirectly, the cause of almost every meteor-
ological phenomenon ; but hitherto, from various causes, the study
of the sun had not formed a portion of the investigation of me-
teorologists. They appeared to have taken it for granted that,
although the sun caused meteorological changes, it acted as a
constant force, which might therefore be disregarded in the in-
vestigation. It was the inconstancy of the sun's action that was
the question at issue. That had been studied to a certain extent,
but as yet quite insufficiently. The x\stronomer Eoyal had given
an example of one mode of studying it by means of radiation
experiments, which were valual)le so far as they went ; but they
only formed a small portion of a large subject. It was natural
that the sun's spots should form the first branch of the inquiry,
as they were conspicuous, and underwent striking changes.
As soon as it was announced, by persons of high authority, that
the sun's spots Avere apparently periodical phenomena, going
through their changes in a cycle of about eleven and a half
years, it was natural that those who pursued meteorological in-

THE NAGPl^'K WATERWORKS. 47

<linrios sliould endeavour to detect a corresi^ondenco between tliose-
periods and the periods of meteorological phenomena, such as
rainfall. He was not, however, one of those who accepted either
the snn-spot period, or any of the uses to wliich it had been
applied. In his opinion the observations had been quite insuffi-
cient to determine the period. They had been made with gi-eat
care and by competent persons, but only in a few isolated places
where there had been frequent interruptions from cloudy weather.
There was nothing like an unbroken series of such observations in
existence ; and it was only from a continuous series that a satisfac-
tory conclusion could be formed. The sun's spots might be of various
kinds. Hitherto they had been treated as all of one kind, and the
sum of their areas had been used to deduce the maximum and mi-
nimum sun-s})ot periods. Some, however, might be constant, while
others might fluctuate. He could not admit that the sun's spots
were necessarily the most efficient phenomena on the sun's surface to
produce meteorological changes. They were the most conspicuous,
but not necessarily on that account the most important. Before
attempting to establish anything like a connection between the sun's-
changes and the changes on the earth, it was necessary to know
the whole story with regard to the sun, and not only a small
portion of it. The subject was as yet entirely in its infancy ; and
now that it was felt that a connection existed, though the terms of
it could not be stated, it was important that the sun should really
be studied with reference to that point. He was glad to find so
great an interest taken in it by the members of the Institution,
since it showed that the study of the subject had not only a phi-
losophical, but a utilitarian value. He regarded it as the greatest
and most difficult problem that science had now to solve, and he
believed that its solution would be most fertile in its results. The
study of the subject, however, would have to extend over some
years, and it would not be wise to jump too readily to conclusions.
AVhat was reqixired for the prosecution of this most pressing
research was, that a number of suitable observatories should be
established in localities so selected that clear weather might be
expected always in one of them at least. By these means would
be obtained the great desideratum of a record of the solar changes
on every day throughout the year. Such a record would help to
demonstrate not only that changes took place, but also how they
took place — in other words, the law of the modus oi^erandi might
thus be detected. The great differences of climate existing in va-
rious parts of India at the same pei'iod of the year pointed to that
country as peculiarly adapted by nature for such inquiries ; and no

48 THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS.

part of the British dominions was more interested than India in a
knowledge of the laws which governed meteorological fluctuations
— laws which, when known, would doubtless afford indications
when to expect excessive or defective rainfall, so important with
respect to periodical famines— as also cyclones, and other pheno-
mena affecting health, agriculture, and navigation.

Mr. T. Ormiston said that when, seven years ago, he made an
inquiry as to an auxiliary water supply for Bombay, and had occa-
sion to examine into the question of evaporation, he applied for
information to a gentleman the most competent to form an opinion,
and who had experimented on the subject, Col. Fyfe, of the Eoyal
Engineers, and Superintending Engineer for Irrigation in the
Bombay Presidency. Colonel Fyfe stated that in large reservoirs
— say 2 square miles in area — the amount of evaporation that he
allowed for was about 3 feet per annum in the Deccan, and some-
thing less in the Concan district. From that, and from other
information, he had put it down at 3 inches per month in the
fair season, which lasted eight months, and half that amount in
the rainy season, altogether 2.V feet per annum. Deducting that
amount, and allowing the whole rainfall on the water area of the
reservoir itself, and 55 per cent, to run off the ground, would give a
tolerably fair approximation of the capability of the drainage valley.
He found, however, that a considerable amount was lost by soakage
and leakage through the dams. That of course would depend on
the materials of which the dams were made, and the care with
which they were constructed, as well as on the soil on which they
were placed, and on their height. Taking everything into account,
he considered that by deducting J- from the product the remainder
would be available for distribution in the town. This mode of
estimating the suppl}^ available for the Bombay district was ap-
proximately correct, and it was adopted by Major Tulloch, K.E.,
Assoc. Inst. C.E., in his report on the water supply of Bombay
generally.' The question of evaporation was a very complicated one,
depending upon a great many circumstances, one of them being
the depth of water in the lake itself. In November last year,
in Bombay Harbour, the thermometer being at 104° in the sun
and 81° in the shade, where the , water was 22 feet deep, the
thermometer 2 feet under the surface showed 79°, and when
it was only 4 feet deep, at the same level under the surface, 80°.
Hence it would appear that a shallow tank would evaporate more

' Vide " The Water-Supply of Bombay. Being a Eeport submitted to the
Bench of Justices of that City." By Major H. Tulloch, R.E, 8vo. Plates and
Maps. London, 1872.

THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS. 49

tlian a deep one. He believed the works at Nagpiir had given
the greatest satisfaction to all concerned. It might be open to
question whether it would not have been more prudent to have
taken the discharge pipe through the solid hill, instead of in a
syphon over the bank, because, if a depression took place in the
bank, it might be difficult to get at the pipe for the purpose of
repairing it. There was one point to which the Author, with cha-
racteristic modesty, had not referred, namely, the closeness of the
estimate with the actual cost. He had seen the estimate in an
official paper, and it appeared to be within ^ per cent, of the actual
cost of the work. Mr. Binnie had placed a formidable prospect before
the younger members of the profession, who, he said, must not
only be prepared to make general plans, designs, and estimates, but
to make working drawings and sections, and drawings of all the
plant, and also to carry out the works. Judging from his own ex-
perience, it was not so difficult after all to carry out works in India.
He had had the charge of ten thousand workpeople there. The
foremen proved clever and competent, if only they were made to feel
that they had an interest in the matter. He had found it a great
pleasure to exchange the management of work in England for that
in India, where there was no fear of a deputation from a Union
interrupting the men in their work. In India, if a man was not
satisfied, he simply walked off, and did not even ask for his pay.
The moral to be drawn from the Paper was, that the Government
would have done well if, instead of founding a new college at
Cooper's Hill for sending out young gentlemen to India, they had
selected experienced assistants from English offices to carry out
important works in that country.

Mr. S. C. HoMERSHAM said that the amount (54 per cent.) lost by
evaporation from the surface of the water, after it was collected in
the lake or reservoir, seemed large. Another point worthy of
attention was the temperature, 96° Fahr. in the river, and from
90' to 92'^ at 5 feet below the surface in the reservoir in warm
seasons of the year. All who were connected or acquainted
with works of that character knew that, even in this country,
a great amount of animal life existed in surface water so im-
pounded. Although here the maximum temperature of water
in such reservoirs rarely exceeded 68° to 70^ Fahr., yet in warm
seasons one could not take a gallon of water from a stagnant
lake, natural or- artificial, without finding twelve or fourteen
different species of minute animals and great numbers of each
species, many of them very unwholesome ; such things ought not
to be found in potable water. Where lake or reservoir watev

[1874-75. N.S.] E

50 THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS.

was, as in India, at a temperature of 90^ and upwards, there were
still more of such animals — sponges and higher organisms, in-
cluding the guinea-worm, that attacked the hare legs of the water-
carriers when wading in shallow water. Therefore, it was most
desirable to do without surface water collected in large stagnant
open reservoirs, more especially in a hot country like India, and to
obtain subterranean water, which in its normal condition was un-
contaminated with sewage or other organic matter, and quite free
from living organisms. The amount of solid matter in the
Nagpiir water was given at nearly 7 grains per gallon, one-
fourth of which was put down as organic matter. This organic
matter was, no doubt, mainly the residue of large numbers of
animalcules ; but it did not represent their entire weight. More
than nine-tenths of living animalcules were water ; so that when a
chemist stated, as was usual, the amount of organic matter in a
highly-dried state, or even burnt into charcoal from animalcules
in water, that amount would have to be multiplied b}^ ten to arrive
at the weight of the animals when living. Mere chemical analysis
of water, therefore, in regard to wholesomeness, might mislead ;
microscopical examination was also needed. The character of
water had a great influence upon the health of a population,
and living organisms in potable water were known to produce a
large amount of disease or ill-health.

Sir George Campbell said he was not competent to discuss the
scientific questions raised in the Paper : he would only remark
that those who were connected with the administration of India
had not been unmindful of the subject, but were doing their utmost
to obtain all the scientific data possible in regard to the rainfall,
the wind, and other matters. Many of the observations, it was
true, were not altogether reliable ; but at the large stations like
Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, and Nagpiir, the various phenomena in
connection with the rainfall, &c., had been observed with great
scientific accuracy. He had the pleasure, before leaving Calcutta,
of gratifying Mr. Blandford by arranging for a new meteorological
observatory, which he hoped would be the means of adding to
the valuable information already obtained. There was one point
on which he had hoped that the discussion might have thrown
light, viz., the possibility of storing large quantities of water
under the conditions of soil and climate existing in India. That
was a subject of great importance, not only in regard to the
supply of water for such a town as Nagpiir, but in regard to the
schemes of irrigation now before the Indian Government. The
solution of the question had hardly even been approached. A

THE NAGPtJR WATERWORKS. ' 51

very eminent man, Sir Arthur Cotton, had suggested the possi-
l)ility of enormous reservoirs for the storage of water with a view
to tlio pci-ennial supply of canals to irrigate the country; hut
the plan had not been adopted on a large scale. True, there
were in India tanks of considerable size which irrigated the
ground immediately under them ; there were also the remains of
old tanks and reservoirs constructed under native rulers ; but Sir
Arthur Cotton's proposal was to do things on a much more magni-
ficent scale. None of the existing tanks would suffice to supply a
large irrigation canal flowing over hundreds of miles during many
months of the year. It would be desirable to knoAv whether such
things were possible. He had himself had practical reason for
believing it was necessary that the question should be solved.
There were irrigation works in India which depended for their
supply, not upon the perennial streams of the Himalayas, but
upon the sui'face waters of the drier parts of the interior, in such
districts as those in the neighbourhood of Nagpiir. He would refer,
as an illustration, to part of the scheme known as the Orissa
scheme, though it did not belong to Orissa. In Midnapore, which,
during the recent famine, had been affected, not to the greatest
degree, but to a considerable extent, by the drought, a canal had
been completed, and, shortly before the drought, had been brought
into operation. Up to that time the cultivators had not been
induced 1p take the water freely ; when the drought came there
was a great demand for it, but the sources were dried up, so that
the demand could not be supjDlied. The calculations on which the
caixal was based failed when it came to the pinch. The canal
was calculated to supply from 100,000 to 200,000 acres, but at that
critical period it could not irrigate more than 30,000 acres.

General F. Cotton said there was nothing to show that there
was any practical impossibility in storing water to the extent
required. In the south of India the ancient inhabitants had so
completely turned to account the waters of the Viga, that it was
only in exceptional years that it reached the sea. This stream
got its supply from the never-failing western monsoon, and,
though not one of the great rivers of India, was larger than any
river in England. AVhat had been done in the valley of the Viga
might be worked for in the valley of the Ganges, &c. ; and, com-
paring the skill and appliances of English engineers with the
means at the disposal of the ancient Hindoos, it was not much to
say that, had the ever-flowing water from the snow of the Hima-
layas been turned to account by modern energy, a great portion,
if not all, of the suffering and loss from the recent drought in the

E 2

52 THE NAGPUK WATERWORKS.

Ganges valley wonld liave been avoided. He regretted that the
subject, so vast and so important, should be touched upon on an
occasion when it was impossible to discuss it.

Mr. G. J. Symons remarked that the only table in the Paper to
which he had any objection was that of extraordinary showers
during the monsoon of 1872. With perhaps two exceptions, the
showers were not such as would be considered remarkable even
in this country. It was true that the rainfall at Nagpur was
only 40 inches ; but remembering the few months during which
that amount principally fell, he scarcely thought thatthe showers
in question deserved the term " extraordinary." Table VI., on the
other hand, was one of the finest, perhaps the finest, of the kind
ever compiled. It showed that the rule often adopted in this
country, that the rainfall in the wettest season was twice that in
the driest, did not hold good generally, as there were several cases
where the maximum was more than three times the minimum. He
entirely agreed with Sir George Campbell respecting the observa-
tions made in India at the present time, but in reference to the
rainfall at Madras, as far back as 1813, it was not known how the
records there were then kept. Curiously enough, nearly all the
exceptional features were at Madras ; and this was especially notice-
able in regard to the minimum and maximum fall, the latter being
4f times the former. The " period of observation " in Table VI.
varied from nineteen to sixty years. The limits of deviation
would hardly be as great in a period of nineteen years as in a
period of sixty years ; he had therefore tried to ascertain whether
there was any relation between the " extreme range " and the
"number of years;" and he found that, among the instances
quoted in Table VI., there was none whatever. With regard
to the relation which the average fall of the three driest con-
secutive years bore to the average of a long period, there had
been in this country two proposals. One was to take off from
the mean one-sixth, which was the same thing as saying that
the average fall in three consecutive dry years was 83 per
cent. ; but he ^ had taken it at 80, and this, whether right or
wrong, was nearest to Mr. Binnie's figures. It had been said
that continuous records were desirable, and he agreed with
the observation. One of the stations cited by the Author was
Barbadoes. It appeared, from a recent publication by Governor
Eawson, that two registers had been rolled into one, as was fre-
quently the case. By a separate record, 77, instead of 84, was-

Vide Royal Commission on Water Supply, 18G8. Minutes of Evidence, p. 38.

THE NAGPtJB WATERWORKS. 53

obtained ; showing the disturbing element introduced by a register
that did not run on without a break. At St. Petersburg the
average of three consecutive dry years was only 64 per cent, of the
mean, but those were the first years of the register, thirty or forty
years ago ; and he was not sure whether the records were as re-
liable as the subsequent ones. He concurred in all that had been
said by Colonel Strange with regard to sun spots. He thought it
was a pity the Author had in Tables VIII., IX,, and X. departed
from the excellent plan adopted in Table VI., where the rainfall
was given in terms of the mean annual fall, and a series of
ratio values comparable with one another, but had gone back
to the old plan of giving it in inches. With regard to eva-
poration, the temperature of the water was taken in the ex-
perimental tank, not only at the surface and at the depth of a
foot, but also at the bottom ; and, moreover, a series of thermo-
meters were placed in a river at a short distance, in order to
ascertain the exact relation of the temperature of the water in the
tank to that of the large mass of running water. That relation
was very close indeed, but with the ordinary evaporators, in each
of which observations of temperature were made, there would be
differences of 20° or 30°. An anemometer was also emj)loyed
within a foot of the ground, and close to the water, to determine
the influence of the wind on the amount of evaporation. It had
been stated that the evaporation was a certain proportion of the
rainfall ; this he denied. There was no relation between the
evaporation and the rainfall. He might be permitted to refer the
younger members to the " Annales des Fonts et Chaussees " of
Franqe, which contained records of evaporation superior to any
that he had seen elsewhere. The inutility of previous methods
had been discovered, and other and better means had been
adopted.

Captain Sadrix Biiogkk, E.E., Deputy Commissioner of Jubbul-
pore, wished to add his testimony to the success of these works.
He had found from official records that the original estimate
for the Nagpur Waterworks was £;>G,554 ; a subsequent estimate
for subsidiary works, not covered by the text of the first instruc-
tions, amounted to £2,981. The expenditure, as against the
original estimate, amounted to £36,718, being an excess of £l6-i
over the estimate — somewhat less than ^ per cent. This would
be creditable in any country, and was especially so in India,
where the difficulties arising from the want of trained super-
vision were very great, and not easy to overcome. On the supple-
mental estimate the expenditure amounted to £2,811, being £170

54 THE NAGPUE ■VVATEEWOKKS.

below the calculation. The net resiilt on the two estimates was
a savin 2: of £6. The closeness of the estimate to the cost of the
work would, he was sure, be duly appreciated, and was owing to
the careful attention given, not only to the details of the work, but
also to a rigorous supervision of the accounts. The municipality
of Xagpur might be congratulated on the successful issue of the
undertaking — which was mainly due to having, under the guid-
ance of Mr, Morris, the Chief Commissioner, selected a good man,
and, without unnecessary interference, trusted him implicitly till
the work was comjileted.

Mr. Binx:e, in reply, said the value of the old embankment, con-
sidered as earthwork, and priced at the same figure as it had cost
to form the newly raised portion, "would be about £1,800, which
would bring up the total amount to £41,332. A tunnel round
the end of the embankment was not adopted on account of the
expense, notwithstanding that such a mode of discharging the
water would have been most advantageous. From the experience
gained in constructing the works, if he were again designing
them he should make the lift of the syphon considerably greater.
The drainage area was a rocky, uncultivable, almost treeless
and uninhabited tract. The rough grass growing during the
rains was partly burned ofl', partly cut for thatching, and
partly gTazed off, but no contamination was likely to arise from
the latter cause, as the dung of the animals was carefully col-
lected by the natives for fuel. A reference to the figures in
Tables III. and TV. would show that the reservoir was not too
large. It contained 240,000,000 cubic feet, a little under two
years' supply, which he believed was a safe capacity for reser-
voirs in that part of India. Nor could the drainage area be said
to be too small for the size of the reservoir. On an average, during
the last twenty years (as shown in Table IV.) it discharged
from 60,000,000 to 80,000,000 cubic feet of water per annum more
than the reservoir, as at present constructed, could contain. On a
review of the whole subject, he thought it would be better if the
reservoir resembled instances 5 and 6 in Table lY., and held
48,000,000 cubic feet more than at present. Mr. Homersham
had selected a most unfortunate example in illustration of his-
favourite views. In the case of Nagpur, the subsoil water, as
obtained from wells, was often brackish. In the city of Nagpur
out of twelve hundred and thirty -one wells, nine hundred were so
salt that they were totally unpotable. He could not admit that the
high temperature was likely to prove so deleterious as had been
siiggested, or that the whole of the organic matter was necessarily

THE NAGPt'R WATERWORKS. 55

the remains of organic animal life; lie believed a considerable
portion of it was undeleterious vegetable matter, and, so far from
the present supply affecting the health of the population, he was
informed by the Sanitary Commissioner of Xagpur that, since the
introduction of the new supply, the health of the city had con-
siderably improved. He agreed with Sir George Campbell as
to the necessity for the construction of large reservoirs in India,
and with General Cotton as to their perfect feasibility. Nor was
it from any fault of the engineers in India that they were not
constructed. AVithin the last few years, in a comparatively small
district like that of the Central Provinces, he knew of two irri-
gation projects, both depending for their supply on large irrigation
reservoirs. These had been sent up to the Government of India,
but they were still unsanctioned. As to the showers recorded in
Table II. not being extraordinary, he thought it would be im-
possible to cite instances in this or any other European country of
showers of 3^ inches in forty-five minutes, or cases in which there
had been a discharge of upwards of 90 per cent, from a drainage area
of 6 J square miles within three hours after the commencement
of the shower. "V\'ith regard to the yield from the drainage area,
taking into account that the average rainfall at Bombay was
76 "8 inches, and that the climate was more humid near the sea,
he thought the observations of Mr. Eussel Aitken, who found the
flow from the ground to vary from 50 to 80 per cent., the per-
centage depending on the amount of the rainfall, fully bore out
his observations. For in the exceedingly dry climate of Xagpiir,
with an average monsoon rainfall of only 37 inches, he had found
from actual gaugings the yield would vary from 15t up to 40 per
cent., depending on whether the season's rainfall was 19 or 40 inches.
The diagrams with regard to fluctuations of rainfall referred to by
3Ir. Bateman, of which particulars for Calcutta were given in Fig. 2,
p. 56, formed the original basis on which Table YI. was constructed.
They were too voluminous for publication in the Proceedings of the
Institution, but he would take an early opportunity of presenting
them for reference in the library. The subject of rainfall fluc-
tuations formed the most valuable part of the Paper, and he was
sorry it was not more discussed, as, in his opinion. Table Yl.
showed some slight approach to a general law on the subject.
"NVith regard to the exceptional character of Madras, it might be
explained in this way. Throughout India rains were generally
due either to the north-east or the south-west monsoon. In ordi-
nary years Madras received its rain from the north-east monsoon,
but occasionally it got a little of the south-west, and sometimes

THE NAGPUR WATERAVORKS.

THE NAGPUR WATERWORKS. 57

a large quantit}' was blown across the continent of India. To that
cause he attributed the great fluctuation between the extreme
minimiim and the extreme maximum which Madras presented
when contrasted with other places in India. The subject of
evaporation had proved more interesting than he could have ex-
pected. The observations recorded in Table V. had been made
without any preconcerted theoretical views. The facts were
collected in the first five columns, and thus he endeavoured
to deduce from them the actual amount of evaporation. The
result of the discussion proved how little was known on the
subject, and how much the most eminent authorities differed as to
the formula^ and as to the coefficients to be employed. Some
gentlemen were able to reconcile the first three of the observations
with theory, but failed to do so with regard to the four last, while
others said exactly the reverse. All however, were agreed that
some great and unexplained force was at work during one
of the two periods into which the table could be divided. He
did not profess to give all the data on which the theory of the
subject depended, but he thought he could explain the matter.
From about the middle or the end of March to the commence-
ment of the rains in June, the hot winds blew at Nagpiir con-
tinuously-, during the day, with a velocity of upwai'ds of 150 miles
per day. Their temperature averaged about 98^, and the comparative
humidity of the air during that time was considerably under '50,
saturation being considered as 1. Of course, in judging of hot
winds according to their scientific aspect, personal feeling must
be set aside, but the effect on the ordinary senses, when stepping
out from a cool room on to a verandah in the open air, was some-
tliing like that experienced on going in front of a blast furnace.
With regard to the apparent discrepancy between the first and
last results in Table V., pointed out by Dr. Pole, it might be
explained in this way. As stated in the Paper, during the
dry season when his observations were taken, there was a fall
of 3 inches of rain, which, in order to arrive at the average
evaporation per diem, he had distributed over the whole season.
Out of that quantity 1 • 40 inch fell during the period of the last
observation, from the 7th of May to the 9th of June. Taking the
1*40 inch, and restricting it purely to that one observation,
not distributing it over the whole series, it raised the amount of
evaporation during that period from "Olo? foot to '019 foot per
day. Remembering how many circumstances entered into the
consideration of the subject, such as the temperature of the air,
the dew point, the force of the wind, the elastic force of vapour,

58 th;e nagpur waterwoeks.

the temi^erature and depth of the water, and other points mentioned
during the discussion, he thought the time had arrived when, if
the subject was to be thoroughly investigated, it would be neces-
sary to give up observations with small vessels, such as those to
which reference had been made ; they were too shallow for reliable
results as to temperature, too limited in area to allow free play
to the wind, and were altogether so small as to be affected by
many disturbing causes. He had endeavoured, however imper-
fectly, to indicate, by the facts given in Table II., how, in his
opinion, the observations should in future be conducted, and he
believed that his own observations, extending over a water area
of 350 acres, were much less liable to small errors and disturbing
causes than in the case of the 36 square feet referred to by Mr.
Field. No consideration of the subject of rainfall in the present
day would be complete without mention of the sun-spot theory ;
and he was much pleased that so free and full an expression of
opinion on the subject had been elicited. The knowledge that, by
his remarks, so eminent a man as the Astronomer Eoyal had been
led to consider the relation between solar radiation and rainfall
was of itself a sufficient reward for bringing the subject before
the Institution. With regard to the duties of engineers in India,
he had stated, to the best of his ability, his own personal ex-
perience, and what he had himself seen in the case of engineers
similarly situated. Mr. Ormiston, at Bombay, was differently
circumstanced. He had contractors and a large trained staff, and
could obtain easily and cheaply from Europe any materials he
might require. If he were removed 500 miles inland, he would
be thrown much more upon his own resources. While generally
agreeing in the observations as to Cooper's Hill College, yet he
had no hesitation in expressing his belief that it was the finest
theoretical engineering school he had ever seen, and he believed
that Government would in time see the necessity of enlarging
the period to be spent by the students on actual works of con-
struction under some eminent civil engineer. Experience was
at the very root of the profession, and it could only be properly
acquired on actual works under a good master. Personally, he
was deeply indebted to Mr. Bateman for the training he had re-
ceived : without it he never could have brought this Paper pro-
perly before the Institution, and he was sure that training could
not have been received at any school or college, however good.

Mr. Harrison, President, said the manner in which Mr. Binnie's
observations had been received rendered it unnecessary for him
to say a word as to the value of the Paper. It had been the

THE nagpCb waterworks. 5&

luoaus of laying before tlio Institution matters of considerable
interest, and had brought among them their Honorary Member,
the Astronomer Eoyal, who had propounded, not exactly a theory,
but a striking coincidence in regard to the rainfall going •pari passu
with the heat of the sun. Although he called it merely a coincidence,
he was about to devote bis attention to the matter, to see whether
there was anything in it that could be reduced to a positive
theory. He could not allow the opportunity to pass without
making a remark on a further coincidence, in regard to the works
constructed by Mr. Binnie. That he should have submitted an
estimate for a large work of that kind, and actually completed
it within a few pounds of that estimate, was a circumstance that
reflected upon him the greatest credit, and he only wished that
in the numerous works executed in this country, engineers could
lay claim to similar accuracy. He had not himself been engaged
in the construction of reservoirs of anything like the magnitude
referred to. Immense reservoirs and embankments, however, had
been constructed in England, and if it could be shown that such
enormous receptacles for water as had been alluded to were a
matter of necessity in India, he believed the practical ingenuity,
talent, and experience of engineers would not be wanting for
carrying them out.

Mr. Henry F. Blanford remarked, through the Secretary, that,
in his opinion, India offered a fairer field for investigating the
perplexed problem of rainfall, and, indeed, most other meteorologi-
cal conditions, than any country equally accessible ; and he hoped
that the steps now being taken by the Indian government to
systematise observation and to render the results accessible, would,
in the course of a few years, lead to definite conclusions on the
subject. He would add a few data to those given by the Author.

With respect to Calcutta, the recorded rainfall from 1829 to
1835 was as follows : —

Inche'. Inches.

1829 59-9i 1833 GO-56

1830 63-28 18.34 68-73

1831 5G-90 1835 85-50

1832 50-72 I

and that of 1873, not included in the table, was 45*27 inches.
The average of the forty-five years was 65 "44 inches, which
differed but little from that of thirty-seven years given by the
Author. The largest fall recorded within tAventy-four hours was
12 inches. That quantity fell on the 11th of May, 1835, and

THE NAGPUR WATERWOKKS.

again on tlie 13tli of June, 1861, On the former occasion tlie
whole fall took place in tliree hours.

The average rainfall of Nagpiir, according to his data (twenty-
four years), was somewhat higher than that given by Mr. Binnie ;
it was —

Inches.

From January to IMay . . . . 3 • 22

,, June to September . . . . 38"42

, , October to December . . . .3-70

45-34

The following data for the seven years, 1826-32, were given hy
Dr. Buist, in his " Manual of Physical Kesearch for India " : —

Inches.

1826 6516

1827 53-99

1828 46-61

1829 50-25

Inches.

1830 33-00

1831 05-31

1832 37-14

Nothing was stated with respect to the position or character of
the gauge used in these measurements ; perhaps, therefore, the
returns could not be accepted with perfect confidence. The
average of these years, distributed according to the seasons as
above, was —

From January to Jlay
, , June to September
,, October (o December.

Inclirs.

3-14

40-12

5-03

It was to be noticed that the high average of the last three
months of the year was chiefly affected by the large quantity of
17-75 inches recorded in 1831, of which 8-24 inches fell in the
■month of December alone.

He did not think that at present any light could be thrown on
the causes of the fluctviation of the rainfall in different years, and
as yet no empirical law of any value had been discovered in its
irregular incidence. But there seemed to be some prospect that
the study of the distribution of pressure in the monsoon region
Avould, in the course of time, throw some light on this perplexed
subject. In a Paper communicated to the British Association this
year, at Belfast, he showed that, as appeai-ed from the barometric
registers of the last six years, the irregiilarities of relative pressure
in Northern India, regarded as deviations from the normal or
average distribution of pressure for a given month or season, were
frequently protracted, so that the same abnormal features of
pressure-distribution frequently lasted through a whole monsoon ;

THE NAGPIR WATERWORKS. 61

sometimes, intleecl, it would appear from the registeis, tliroTioli
one or two years; but this required further verification. More-
over, in one or two cases, notably in the monsoon of 1808, and less
distinctly in that of 1873, there appeared to be a definite relation
between the position of the abnormal barometric depression and
that of excessive and deficient rainfall respectively. Unfortunately,
most of the barometric registers kept in India, till within the last
few years, were worthless, the observations not having been cor-
rected to any standard, and observers having neglected to ascertain
the elevation of their instruments above sea-level, or any local
datum level ; so that it woiild require several years' observations to
work out the laws suggested by the facts recently observed. As
far as could be surmised at present, it seemed that it was at least
as probable that deficient rainfall in one region was compensated
by excessive rainfall elsewhere, as that the observed ii-regularities
were general and simultaneous. At all events it would, he
thought, be a mistake to direct attention too exclusively to the
question of cycles, and to neglect inquiry into that of com-
pensating areas, which to him seemed the more promising of the
two. The monsoon region of South-Eastern Asia presented many
advantages for such an inquiry, as it was (in India at least) cut
off from Central Asia by the Himalayan chain, and had an in-
dependent wind system. It was to be hoped that systematiscd
observation in India might lead to some more definite conclusions
than had yet been attained.

"With respect to an observation of the Astronomer Royal as to
the apparent concurrence of increased solar radiation at the
earth's surface, with increased rainfall, the Indian observationn
showed that the temperature of solar radiation was the higher, the
drier the atmosphere and the smaller the rainfall.

November 17, 1874.

THOS. E. IIAERISON, President,

in the Chair.

The discussion upon the Paper, No. 1,308, "The Xagpiir Water-
works," by Mr, Binnie, was continiicd throughout the evening.

^2 THE PENNSYLVANIA rvAILr.OAD.

November 2-i, 187-1.

THOS. E. HARRISON, President,

in tlie Chair.

No. 1,332. — " The Pennsylvania Railroad; with remarks on Ame-
rican Railway Construction and Management."^ By Charles
Douglas Fox and Francis Fox, MM. Inst. C.E.

The main line of the Pennsylvania railroad, of which alone a
detailed description is given in this communication, extends from
Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, a distance of 355 miles ; of this distance
a length of nearly 354 miles is double line. In direct connection
with the main line, and worked with it, are 82 miles of single
branch lines and 230 miles of sidings. The trunk line traverses
a densely populated country, and brings Philadelphia (and through
its connections also the city of New York) and the eastern sea-
board into direct communication with the richest parts of the
state of Pennsylvania, the immense coalfields of Pittsburgh and
the vicinity, and the Western system of railroads. The Penn-
sylvania Railroad Company has, however, extended the boundaries
of its sj'^stem, until it now controls, either by leases, working-
agreements, or otherwise, an additional length of 5,088 miles of
railroad (chiefly single lines), and 408 miles of canal, giving two
independent through routes to each of the cities of Cincinnati,
Chicago, and St. Louis, and placing the company in a very
advantageous position in most parts of the West.

The following statistics are taken, partly from a most exhaustive
report,'-^ issued in the present year by an " Investigating Com-
mittee " of the shareholders, acting in concurrence with the
directors, and partly from special reports kindly prepared for the
Authors by the officers of the company.

The capital account of this great system of 5,933 miles of rail-
road and canal, up to the end of 1873, shows an expenditure of

* The discussion upon this Paper extended over portions of three evenings,
but an abstract of the whole is given consecutively.

- Vide " Keport of the Investigating Committee of the Pennsylvania Railroad
Company." 8vo. Philadelphia, 1874.

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILKOAD. 63

£73,015,740, or £12,300 per mile, and the results of the working
for that year, were as follows : —

Per mile
jier woek.

£. £. s. d.

Receipts. . . . 15,223,067 = 49 7 0

Expenses . . . 10,552,412 = 34 4 0 = 69^ jier cent, of the receipts.
Net earnings . . 4,609,004 = 15 2 8 = 6 • 4 per cent, per annum
on the whole capital, including bonded debt.

The capital account of the main line, with its branches, repre-
senting a total length of 791 miles of single line, exclusive of
sidings, shows a total expenditure of £8,904,830, or £11,250 per
mile of single line, thus approximately divided, viz. : —

£.

Land for railroad and stations, per mile 2,500

General works, permanent way, and stations, per mile . . . 5,250
Locomotives and rolling stock, per mile 3,500

In order, however, to arrive at a fair estimate of the total cost,
it is necessary to take into account the fact that the company,
pursuing in this respect an unusual, but, as the Authors submit,
a very wise course, long since closed the capital account for the
main line, and that, exclusive of ordinary maintenance and repairs,
there has been expended, out of revenue, during the years 1855 to
1873 inclusive, upon permanent improvements and works of con-
struction, including the substitution of iron for wood in bridges,
and of steel for iron rails, no less a sum than £5,310,227, or
£6,713 per mile, bringing the cost up to £17,963 per mile of single
line. , If, in the absence of separate accounts, there be deducted
for the branches, 82 miles at the average cost of American rail-
roads, viz., £9,820 per mile, the cost of the main line will be found
to be about £37,827 per mile of double line.

The company originally purchased land at each of the chief centres,
much in excess of the then immediate requirements of the line,
and the wisdom of this course is manifest, not only from the great
facilities thus afforded for the vast traffic which has grown up,
but from the fact that this land, which originally cost £1,184,169,
is now worth, at a low valuation, and after excluding that occu-
pied by the railroad itself, the sum of £3,401,937, or very nearly
three times its cost.

Table I. in the Appendix gives the results of the working of the
main line and branches for a period of thirteen years. The net
earnings have been, on the average, a little over 12 per cent, on
the capital. From 1853 to 1873 the company have paid an
average dividend of 9 • 9 per cent., and a total amount in dividends
equal to 234 per cent, upon the entire capital cost.

64 THE PENNSYLVANIA KAILROAD.

The following are the receipts and expenses for the year 1873,
compared with those for the same year on the railways of the
United Kingdom : —

Pennsylvania UniteJ
railroad. Kingdom.
s. d. s. d.

Gross receipts per train mi]c 5 GJ 5 10

Expenditure per train mile thus divided, viz. :

Maintenance of works nnd permanent way . . . 0 SJ 0 7^
Locomotive power 0 11§ Oil

Carriages and wagons 0 5J 0

Traffic charges 0 \^ 0 lOJ

Miscellaneous 0 IJ 0 G

= 62 per cent, of gross receipts 3 Gj

= 53 i^er cent, of gross receipts 3 IJ

A comparison of the results in 1872 would be more favourable
to English railways, the proportions of expenses and gross receipts
in that year having been —

I'er cent.

On the Pennsylvania railroad 63

On the railways of the United Kingdom 49

An analysis of the traffic on the main line in 1873 gives the

following results : —

d.
Eeceipts i^er passenger per mile l-l

Expenses „ „ "9

Net earnings „ „ '2

Eeceipts for goi ids per ton per mile '6

Expenses „ „ "33

Net earnings „ „ '25

Table II. in the Appendix gives particulars of the work done by
the locomotives on this line over a series of years.

Table III. is a statement of the locomotives and rolling stock
belonging to the company over a series of years.

Table IV. in the Appendix gives a comparative statement of
the locomotives and rolling stock of the United States, the United
Kingdom, and India in 1873.

The earthworks of the main line are heavy in many parts ; and
the inclines carrying the railroad over the Allegheny Mountains,
although the gradients are moderate in comparison with those on
other passes, are amongst the most important in America. Starting
in Philadelphia from almost the sea level, the line rapidly rises,
in the first 8 miles, to a height of 350 feet. This elevation is
gradually increased to 1,170 feet at Altoona, 237 miles from
Philadelphia, where the mountain incline commences ; and between

THE PENNSYLVANIA EAILROAD. 65

Altoona and tlic summit at Gallitzin, 240 miles from Phila-
(loliihia, which is 2,154 feet above the sea, tlicre is a total rise of
984 feet in 12 miles, the average gradient being 1 in 82, the
maximum 1 in 55. From the summit the line rapidly falls to
1,170 feet above the sea in 25 miles, and thence descends to
Pittsburgh, 720 feet above the sea, at 355 miles from rhiladelphia.

The sharpest curve (except on the Philadelphia division) has
a radius of 716 feet, and oiit of 250 miles of line 10 miles are
on curves of a less radius than 1,000 feet. Between Philadelphia
and Harrisburgh the line was laid out originally with sharper
•curves ; but extensive deviation works have now been completed
throughout this section, involving almost an entirely new railroad.

In the Appendix (Tables V. and VI.) details are given of the
-curves and gradients.

The gauge of the line is 4 feet 9 inches, and the width at
formation level, on embankment, is 24 feet 3 inches, made up as
follows : —

ft. ins.

Between rails 7 0

Two lints of rails, 4 feet 9 inches each .... 9 6
Sleepers, 1 foot lOi inches outside rail .... 3 9

Ballast, 1 foot outside sleeper 2 0

Formation outside ballast 2 0

24 3

In cuttings in ordinary soil the width is 32 feet, and in rock
28 feet, thus giving ample width for drainage. The usual slopes
in cuttings are, ^ to 1 in rock, 1 to 1 in ordinary soil, and in
embankments 1^ to 1.

As is general in America, there are few over-bridges, almost
all the public roads being carried across the line on the level.
Gates are seldom erected, the line being protected by a simple
guard, and by notice boards in conspicuous positions across the
•carriage road. This plan, combined with a large bell on the
locomotive, which warns the public, but does not frighten horses,
answers well, even where there is considerable traffic on both
road and railroad. It is economical in first cost, and also saves
the salary of a gateman at each crossing in perpetuity. In
some of the latest locomotives, the bell is moved by a rod from the
eccentric strap, and is kept continually ringing. There are, how-
ever, numerous bridges for carrying the railroad over streams.
In the Appendix (Table VII.) a statement is given of the principal
'bridges on the main line, of an aggregate length of about 3 miles.
The abutments and piers are generally of substantial masonry,

[1874-75. N.S.] F

€6 THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD.

either rough-dressed ashlar, or coursed rubble. The timber struc-
tures, erected in the first instance, are being replaced by stone
and iron. As a rule, the bridges have the railroad on the top, and
are composed of three main trusses of the lattice form of con-
struction. The Coatesville bridge, of six spans of 125 feet each,^
has lattice girders with vertical struts of cast iron, diagonal braces
of bars, and a lower chord of rolled links connected with the struts
and ties by bolts, which extend the whole width of the bridge.
These, with an elaborate system of longitudinal, vertical, and
diagonal cross bracing, stifi'en the structure in every direction.
The cross girders, which are of timber, rest upon the uppei*
members of the girders, there being one over each strut, and two
intermediates to each bay, thus bringing cross strains upon the
upper members between the verticals. In the Mount Union
bridge, of five spans of 121 feet 6 inches each, the trusses are con-
structed upon the stiffened triangular system (Plate 4). The truss
is divided into bays of equal length and depth, viz., about 15 feet,
with vertical struts of wrought iron, stiffened with distance pieces
and cross bracing. The top member is composed of two external
channel irons and two bulb irons inside, connected at the top by
plates. The bottom chord consists of rolled links, and the chief
connections are effected by pins. The diagonals are each formed
of two wrought-iron bars, stiffened by distance pieces and bracing.
To support the upper member and convey the strains more directly
to the abutment, a short strut, composed of two channel irons
with distance pieces, is inserted in the middle of each bay. This
strut connects the diagonal with the top flange, the point of junc-
tion of the strut with the diagonal being again tied to the adjoin-
ing vertical in the direction of the middle of the bridge. This
plan appears advantageous, when, as in this case, the cross girders
are intermediate between the main points of support, the wooden
beams forming the cross girders having their centres only about
2 feet apart, and seven of them thus being intermediate in each
bay. The bridge oyer the Susquehanna river, of twenty-three
spans of 154 feet, and a total length of 3,680 feet, is for a single
line, and is the only bridge on the main line with a wooden
superstructure, the trusses being on the " Howe " system with
arches, but not calling for special remark.^

There are eight tunnels of the aggregate length of 2,646 yards,
the longest being 1 ,204 yards.

* Vide "American Timber Bridges," by J. E. Mosse, M. Inst. C.E., and
"American Iron Bridges," by Zerah Colburu. Minutes of Proceedings Inst.
C.E., vol. xxii., pp. 305 and 540.

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 67

The permanent way or track on the main line is of unusTial
strcn<,rth for an American railroad. The standard section of rail
(Plato -1) now used weighs G7 lbs. per yard, and is of steel,
■irk inches high with a base only 4 inches wide, which appears verj'
narrow for a rail of this weight. The fishplates or splices are
-■* inches long, 2*4 inches deep, and ^ inch thick, fastened with
four bolts 5 inch diameter. The sleepers or cross-ties are of white
oak 8^ feet long, and 8 inches by 8 inches in section, and are
spaced 48 to every 100 feet, or 2,534 to the mile. There is no
joint sleeper, the rails being laid to break joint, and the joints
suspended. The rails are secured to the sleepers by dog-spikes, but
these do not draw easily from the hard wood sleepers. Fano-
bolts are not used, being exceedingly inconvenient, for when the
road bed is frozen no ordinary packing can be done, and the
rails have to be kept in line and level by ' shimming,' or packing
with pieces of hard wood between the rail and the sleeper.

Upon the branch lines the rails vary in weight, according to
traffic, from 64 lbs. and 67 lbs. for iron, to 56 lbs. and GSlbs^for
steel. Here also a wooden block is often substituted for the fish-
plate on the outside.

The line, contrary to general American usage, is well ballasted,
in a great measure with rock. The quantity of ballast per mile
of double line averages 5,200 cubic yards. The number of men
employed in keeping the permanent way in repair averages two
per mile of double track.

No general system of signals is used, and even indicator signals,
are uncommon. The old form of sliding rail is almost universally
adopted in lieu of the switch, being less liable to be blocked by
snow or ice. The traffic is regulated by telegraph, extensive
sidings being provided for shunting purposes.

The stations are chiefly of timber, of simple and economical con-
struction. The platforms are rarely raised, the surface of the
ground being planked in the better class of stations. At Altoona
and Philadelphia there are extensive shops for locomotive and
carriage repairs, the carriage shops being very complete.

The different classes of locomotives are designated by the first
seven letters of the alphabet (Appendix, Table VIII.) ; but there
are in reality only three well-marked types, viz.: The eight
wheel, the ten wheel, and the ' shifter ' or shunting engine. The
leading dimensions of the several types are given in the Appendix,
and are shoAvn in Plates 5 and 6. Only a short description of
their special uses and some details will therefore be necessary.
The "A" engine is the leading passenger locomotive over the

F 2

08 THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD.

middle and Philadelphia sections of the line, and exists in three
varieties, only slightly differing. The " B " engine, a small class,
is nsed as a ' pilot ' on the mountain incline. The " C " engine
is almost identical with the " B," and is the most efficient passenger
locomotive. One of these engines, assisted by a " B " engine, has
regularly taken a train of seven passenger cars, of a total weight
of 165 tons, in twenty- four minutes from Altoona to the top of the
mountain. Whilst ascending the mountain with a train of nine
cars, weighing 215 tons, one of these engines has evaporated 2,400
gallons of water in less than an hour. One of the " E " engines,
which are chiefly used on the mountain, has taken a gross load of
223 tons (exclusive of engine and tender) up the mountain in
thirty-five minutes. The " F " engine is for shunting purposes,
and is called a ' shifter.' The " G " engine is for ballasting and
branch traffic.

The greatest importance is attached to interchangeability of
parts. An idea may be formed of the uniformity existing amongst
the several types from the fact, that whilst 112 patterns are required
for one engine, only 187 are required to include all the seven
classes, exclusive of the tender, which is alike for all.

The locomotives have leading trucks of the variety known as the
' swing centre,' in which the socket for the centre pin or pivot of
the engine, instead of being rigid, as in the old-fashioned American
truck, is suspended on links, combined with a double system of
springs, and is thus capable of lateral motion, allowing the centre
line of the engine, when passing round a curve, to lie outside the
centre of the truck. With the aid of this contrivance, the engines
pass round a curve of 350-feet radius without serious strain either
to themselves or to the permanent way. The lateral motion also
reduces the severity of the concussion between the leading flanges
and the guard-rails and crossings.

The trucks have chilled cast-iron wheels. Steel wheels have been
tried, but it was found that they would not bear the severe work
of guiding the locomotive over the sinuosities of the line. Solid
cast wheels, with the running surface chilled, are the safest,
especially in cold weather, a truck wheel of this kind rarely break-
ing, and one such wheel outliving at least three steel wheels.
Again, the flanges of chilled wheels are soon made smooth and highly
polished by wear ; whilst the flanges of steel wheels become rough
and torn, and in a short time too thin and sharp for safety. Chilled
cast-iron wheels are also almost exclusively used for the rolling
stock, steel tires having been tried for the passenger cars, but
having quickly become dangerous from rapid wear. The weight

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 69

of n cast-iron wheel for a passenger car is iisiially 525 lbs. ; it
costs about £4 sterling, and has an average life of at least 100,000
miles, except when reduced by the constant use of the breaks. Tlu^
metal is charcoal iron, having a tensile strength sometimes reach-
ing 18 tons per square inch, and averaging nearly 14 tons. The
driving wheels are of cast iron, with hollow spokes, usually coun-
terbalanced with lead. They are fitted with steel tires, except for
shunting engines, where chilled tires are more durable, having to
perform the duty of guiding as well as driving. Steel tires arc
held in high estimation for driving wheels, and the desire to use
them wherever possible has exercised a controlling influence over
the designs of the engines. As an engine could not be guided,
as before stated, by steel flanges, the driving wheels have been
placed far enough back from the cylinders to allow the whole
duty of leading to be performed by the truck. Eiforts have
been made to render the weight of the forward part of the engines
available for tractive purposes, by throwing the driving wheels
farther forward; but these failed, for the reasons already given,
unless chilled tires were used, which are themselves a source of
trouble, and are avoided except for shunting engines. Although
they do not break, they become flat and loose.

The boilers (Plate 6) are of soft crucible steel, the shell of the
larger ones being -} inch, and of the rest j\ inch thick. The fire-box
is also generally of steel, A inch thick, with tlie exception of the tube-
plate, which is y'^- inch thick. Sometimes, however, the tube-plate is
made of copper ^ inch thick. The tubes are invariably of iron,
No. 11 gauge. A sample of every plate of steel used in the con-
struction of a boiler is tested by being heated to redness, and then
plunged into cold water ; after which the same piece, while cold,
is bent double and hammered flat. The tensile strength of some
of the steel, which is made at Pittsburgh, is 90,000 lbs. per square
inch. The majority of the boilers have a combustion chamber from
4 inches to 6 inches long, so as to avoid exposing the thick metal
of the tube-sheet to the direct action of the fire. The whole strain
on the top of the fire-box is borne by the crown bars, and is thence
transmitted through the sides to the bottom ring. This practice,
adopted several years ago, is considered safer for steel, but not for
copper fire-boxes, than the old custom of connecting the crown of
the fire-box by braces with the roof of the boiler. Many explosions
are due to these braces, but their omission has not led to a single
explosion. The furnaces are supplied with water grates, consist-
ing of pipes 1| inch outside diameter, placed 3^^ inches apart from
centre to centre. The grates have been in use for a long time,

70 THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD.

and outlast the furnace, if kept free from mud. As they are veiy
open, it is rarely necessary to stir the fire. The deflector is com-
posed of large fire-bricks resting on the water-pipes and extending
from the throat-sheet to the crown. The feedwater is supplied by
one injector and one pump. In addition to the tires and boilers,
crucible steel is employed in the locomotives for such parts as
guides, crank pins, connecting rods, and axles.

As is usual throughout America, tlie locomotives are provided
with massive cabs having double roofs and luxurious seats. The
driver almost always sits to his work, and the regulator and
reversing gear are arranged accordingly. To prevent unneces-
sary exposure of the men to the weather, most of the lubrication
is done from the foot-plate. Plain hose couplings between engine
and tender are found less liable to get out of order in frosty
weather than the ball-and-socket joint ; and where the water-
pipes are exposed there is a contrivance for blowing a jet of steam
into them. Communication is effected between the driver and the
conductor and passengers by a cord running inside the cars along
the roof within easy reach, and connected with a gong under the
cab or with the whistle. The head lamps are of large size, with
powerful reflectors, so as to illumine the track for a considerable
distance in front of the train, and, in combination with the bell
and whistle, to frighten straying cattle off the line.

The passenger cars, including sleeping cars, compartment, vesti-
Imle, parlour, drawing-room, and " silver-palace " cars, " all of which
are the result of a pressing necessity for the invention of new
sTiperlatives of excellence, many of the public being too nice to
travel simply first class," resemble those on the best railroads of
the States, of which descriptions have been already given to the
Institution.^ The weight of an ordinary car is 17 tons, and, as
it will accommodate fifty-two passengers, there is a deadweight
of 6k cwt. to each passenger. The weight of an old-fashioned
sleeping car is 20 tons, of a " Pullman palace car " 26 tons ; and,
although each is provided with twenty-four double berths, and
could therefore carry forty-eight persons, in practice it is of rare
occurrence for a berth to be occupied by more than one person ;
thus reducing the passengers to twenty-four, and giving a dead
weight, in one case of 17 cwt., and in the other of 21 J cwt. to each
passenger. The mileage of these special cars is about 120,000
each per annum. The Pullman Palace Car Company run on this
railroad alone one hundred and seventy cars, costing on the

» Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. xxviii., p. 360.

THE PENNSYLVANIA KAILBOAD. 71

average £3,000 each, or a total of £510,000, and upon their capital
the Pullman Companj' earn about 13 per cent. It is much debated
-amongst practical men in the States whether the incidental gain to
the companies from the use of these unwieldy, though comfortable,
vehicles compensates for the cost of haulage of such an excessive
amount of dead weight, and for the increased cost of maintenance
of the permanent way. The Investigating Committee, in their
report, stated, on the one hand, that these cars were " most valu-
able, and even indispensable in the present state of public feeling
in America," but, on the other hand, that they were " very heavy
and track-destroying ;" they also considered that the railroad com-
pany did not receive enough for the running of the cars, getting
as it did only the ordinary fares, and the Pullman Company
receiving all the advantage of the additional sums charged. Part
■of the stock accompanjang passenger trains consists of cars for
parcels and light freight run by the Express companies, who have
the monopoly of such traffic on many of the lines, and of the com-
bined mail and baggage wagons, which are about 30 feet long.
The passenger stock is all fitted with bogie trucks admitting of
lateral play. The ordinary passenger cars have two pairs of chilled
Avheels on each bogie, and the weight of the truck is 6,400 lbs.
Tlie " sleeping " and " palace " cars have six wheels to each bogie,
and the weight of the truck is 0,600 lbs.

The axles are of soft crucible steel, and are required to stand the
following test, viz. : — Out of every lot of fifty axles one is taken at
random, and placed on bearings 3 feet apart. It is then exposed to
blows in the centre from a weight of 1,640 lbs., falling 25 feet;
and, to be accepted, the sample axle must bear five blows without
breaking. To show their quality, on the 15th of November, 1867,
an axle was only broken after fourteen blows, of which three were
from a height of 35 feet, one from 36 feet, two from 38 feet, seven
from 39 feet, and the last from 40 feet, the axle being turned over at
each blow. The axles are of English make, rough- turned, of 4 inches
diameter in the middle, increasing to 4£ inches in the wheel. The
journals are 3j inches by 7 inches. In an ordinary passenger car
each journal has to carry 4,000 lbs. of dead weight, and a maximum
of 1,000 lbs. of live load, whilst the total load on each journal of
•a palace car is about 600 lbs. less.

The cars are lighted by ordinarj'- coal gas, compressed to about
300 lbs. per square incli, in tanks under the body of the car.
Enough gas is carried to supply one burner consuming 3 cubic feet,
and four burners consuming 6 cubic feet per hour during twelve
liours. Heat is supplied by a stove at each end, burning an-

72 THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD.

tliraclte coal, and so arranged that a current of air is forced inta
the stove by the motion of the train. After being warmed, the air
is distributed by passages under the seats.

The Westinghouse pneumatic continuous break, now being intro-
duced into English rolling stock, has been in general use on this-
railroad for scA'^eral years. It gives the engine-driver unfailing
control of the train, and enables him in an emergency, by turning,
a small handle, to put the breaks on every wheel, including in some
cases those of the locomotive, commencing at the rear of the train.
He is thus able to stop a passenger train when travelling at a
speed of 30 miles an hour down an incline of 1 in 60, in a distance
of less than 500 feet. The details of this break are now generally
known, but the following description may be of interest : — A
double-acting steam cylinder, with doiible-acting air pump attached,
is placed in a vertical position between the driving wheels of the
locomotive, and fastened to the frame with the cylinder and barrel
in the same axial line. The action is direct, the steam and air
pistons being fixed to the same rod. The air, when compressed,
is stored in a reservoir constructed of boiler plate beneath the foot
plate, a gauge being placed within view of the driver to indicate
the pressure. To the underframe of each car an ordinary cylinder,
fitted with a piston and a piston rod, is connected by an adjustable
slotted head with the break lever in such a way that, when com-
pressed air is admitted into the cylinder, the breaks are put on.
From a point near the opposite end of the cylinder a pipe makes a
T connection with an air pipe extending the whole length of the car.
This has, at each end, a flexible coupling to connect the pipes from
the cars with a similar pipe from the reservoir. By means of a
three-way cock, the engineman can turn air into the cylinders and
thus put on the break ; or he can open communication with the
outer air, relieve the pressure, and thus take off the bi'caks, which
are then kept clear of the wheels by springs. The flexible couplings
can be rapidly connected or disconnected ; they are fitted with two
valves, the spindles of which are long enoiigh to unseat or open
the oj^posite valve when the coupling is made. These valves are so
arranged that the pressure of the air will at once close them should
the coupling be broken. The break is therefore a safety one, to the
extent that, if the pressure is once put on by the driver, the breaks
will remain on should the train be entirely disconnected. It
has lately been improved by the addition of a reservoir of pressure
under each car, which is automatically brought into action in case
the cars are accidentally detached. It also works well in all
temperatures, and is not liable to get out of order. It is applied

THE PENNSYLVANIA KAILROAD. 73

almost instantaneously to all the vehicles, and, whilst the driver
can, by a simple movement, ajiply its utmost power, he can never
use such force as to injure anything, or even to skid the wheels.
The goods wagons or freight cars are of five kinds (Plate 7).

1. The 'drop-bottom coal car' is used for coal, ore, and other
kindred substances, and discharges its contents without shovelling.
The cars are 22 feet long by 8 feet wide ; their weight, when
empty, is 10,000 lbs., and each can carry from 20,000 to 24,000 Ibs.

2. The ' drop-bottom gondola car ' conveys miscellaneous freight,
chiefly coals and timber. It is 30 feet long, by 8 feet wide,
weighs from 18,000 to 19,000 lbs., and is capable of carrying a
load of from 20,000 to 24,000 lbs.

3. The ' gondola ' is similar to the last-named car, with the
exception of having no trap doors. Its weight is about 17,000 lbs.,
and its load from 20,000 to 24,000 lbs.

4. The ' stock ' or ' cattle ' car is 30 feet long, by 9 feet wide,
weighs about 19,000 lbs., and can carry 16,000 lbs. loaded with
horses; 14,000 lbs. to 18,000 lbs. if with cattle; 12,000 lbs. if with
pigs ; and 9,000 lbs. if with sheep. AVhen fitted with double decks
these cars will carry 18,000 lbs. loaded with pigs, and 14,000 lbs.
with sheep. Such cars are also largely used for rough freight of
various kinds, as coal, oil, pig-iron, lumber, staves, bark, &c.

5. The ' box ' car, 30 feet long and 8 feet wide inside, is used
for general merchandise, grain (mostly in bulk), flour, &c. The
weight of the empty car is 20,000 lbs., and it will carry, of general
mei-chandise, about 16,000 lbs. ; of grain from 20,000 to 24,000 lbs. ;
and of flour 100 barrels, Aveighing 21,600 lbs.

The freight cars are strongly framed, and are carried on two
trucks ; each truck has four chilled av heels, and weighs 4,625 lbs.

A large portion of the goods traffic is carried on by the Empire
Transportation Company, which owns four thousand five hundred
cars, and altogether provides rolling stock and cars for 5,300 miles
of railway. In the oil regions the Empire Company has also con-
structed 400 miles of pipes to collect the oil in large tanks. This-
petroleum is largely carried in bulk, in cylindrical wrought-iron
tanks mounted on bogie trucks. Serious fires frequently occur
from the transport of so inflammable a material.

It is a curious fact that, whilst the drivers are so well cared
for, the breaks of the goods trains are usually applied from the top
of the wagons, and the breaksmen ride outside and run over the
top of the train when at work.

The whole of the rolling stock is provided with combined
central buffers and drawbars, and the trains generally are loosely

74: THE PENNSYLVANIA TvAILROAD.

•coupled and without safety chains. On some passenger cars in the
States, though not on this railroad, an improved platform and
•coupling, known as Miller's patent, has been introduced. The
lilatforms are trussed to prevent vertical buckling in collisions,
and the coupling, which is self-acting, holds the cars firmly to-
gether at a xmiform level ; thus in great measure doing away with
the loose coupling, and lessening the tendency, often developed in
American rolling stock, and usually caused by the breaking off of
one of the platforms, to raise the end of one car and force it into
the body of the next car.

Water troughs, similar to those on the London and North-
western railway, are laid down on this railroad, to supply the
locomotives when running at speed. By their use express trains
are enabled to run regularly, a distance of 132 miles, without
stopping, in three hours and thirty-seven minutes, or at an average
speed of over 36 miles an hour ; and the whole distance from Pitts-
burgh to Philadelphia, 355 miles, in ten and a half hours, or at
an average speed, including stoppages, of 33f miles per hour.

The heavy passenger and goods traf&c is worked with great
regularity. System and discipline pervade every department, and
no necessarj- expense is spared to maintain both Avorks and rolling
etock in thorough efficiency.

Having thus described in some detail one of the best examples of
railroad construction and of woiking in the United States, the
Authors would desii-e to add a few facts as regards American
railroads generally, to supplement the valuable information already
laid before the Institution,' and that contained in the report of
Oapt. Douglas Gal ton to the Board of Trade.'^

Leaving out of consideration some unimportant tramways
opened between 1826 and 1831, and worked by horse power,
American railroad construction fairly commenced in 1831, when a
section of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, about 60 miles in
length, was first Avorked by steam power, the engine being of
American construction. The Mohawk and Hudson railroad was
opened and worked in the same j'ear by an engine of English make
of 6 tons weight, which, being too heavy, was replaced by an
American locomotive of 3 tons weight.

The importance attached to railroads in the United States (a

' Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. xviii., p. 51 ; vol. xxii., pp. 305
and 540 ; and vol. xxviii., p. 3(30.

- Vide " Report on the Eailways of the United States." By Captain Douglas
Galton, R.E. Folio. London, 1857.

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 75

country in a great measure devoid of good roads) is plainly shown
from the marvellous rapidity with which the system has been
extended. Thus —

In 1830 there were 23 miles completed and at work,

1840

„ 1850

2,818

)»

>»

■!1

»>

'»

»»

9,021 „

„ 1860 „ 30,63.-) „

„ 1870 „ 52,898 „

„ 1871 „ 60,568 „

„ 1872 „ 66,735 „

„ 1873 „ 70,651 „

representing a mile of railroad, chiefly single line, to every 583 of
the population, and a total capital of £693,832,889, or £9,820 per
mile ; whilst in the United Kingdom —

In 1850 there were 6,890 miles completed and at work,
„ 1860 „ 10,433 „

„ 1870 „ 15,537 miles constructed, but not all open,

,, 1871 „ 15,376 miles completed and at work.

„ 1872 „ 15,814 „ „ „ ■

„ 1873 „ 16,082 „

representing a mile of railway to about every 2,000 of the popula-
tion, and a total capital expenditure of £588,320,308, or £36,574
per mile.

The respective proportions of Share Capital (or Stock) and
Debentures (or Bonds) are as follows : —

UNITED STATES.
Share capital, £357,067,074 = 51-5 per cent, of the whole capital.
Debentures, £336,765,815 = 48*5 „ „ „

UNITED KINGDOM.
Share capital, £449,0^7,573 = 73| per cent, of the whole capital.
Debentures, £160,180,080 = 26| „ „ „

Showing a remarkable difference in the margin of security for
Debentures in the two countries. •

The effect of so vast a system of railroads upon the prospects of
the Union has been remarkable. During 1873 the total earnings
of the railroads were £96,510,327, equal to 13^ per cent, upon
their gross cost, and to £2 6s. 9d. per head of population, the
working expenses averaging 65 • 1 per cent, of the receipts, and the
net receipts 4-96 per cent, upon the total capital, including bonded
debt ; whilst the commerce fostered by them has reached a value
estimated at least at £2,000,000,000 annually. In the early days
of the railroad system the receipts from passengers were the larger
item ; now the receipts from goods traffic are fully 2f times as

7C THE PENNSYLVANIA BAILROAD.

great as those from passengers, tlie proportion being 30*8 per
cent, from passengers and 69-2 per cent, from goods; a fact
also observable, though in a much reduced ratio, on English
railways, the proportion being 41-31 per cent, from passengers,
to 55-11 per cent, from goods traffic in 1873. Railroads were
indeed essential to the growth of all those portions of the Middle
and Western States distant from water carriage, for without them
wheat and the other farm produce forming their staples would
have been excluded by the cost of transit from the Eastern and
European markets. It is the opinion of practical men in the
States that the limit of profitable extension westward has been
reached, until the growth of population shall give rise to a larger
local traffic. It is remarkable that the railroads, where parallel
with the river Ohio and other navigable waters, are rapidly draw-
ing away the traffic from them, even in heavy goods.

In this unrivalled network, whilst some of the older trunk lines
are now, like the Pennsylvania railroad, thoroughly substantial,
and suitable for high speeds, every gradation may be found. As
a rule, the railroads, especially in the West, are opened for the
least possible cost, and when the traffic increases are practically
re-constructed. Many of the lines in the far West are little better
than temporary roads laid upon the formation, with scarcely an
attempt at ballast ; and during heavy rains, or upon the melting
of the snow, their condition is wretched. Yet, by the aid of the
bogie truck, trains pass at fair speeds over such roads, without
frequent accident. The fencing is generally very inferior, and the
locomotives are, therefore, armed with a " cowcatcher," to prevent
their being thrown off by stray cattle.

The gauge varies from 6 feet in the case of the " Erie," through
the gradations of 5 feet 6 inches, 5 feet, 4 feet 10 inches, 4 feet
9 inches, and 4 feet 8^ inches, to 3 feet in the case of the
" Denver and Rio Grande," a line of considerable length, which
is only one of inimerous narrow-gauge lines completed or in
progress. AVhere the difference of gauge is small, " compromise "
cars, having wheels with broad flanges, have been used with
advantage; but the attempts to run the same stock from one
gauge to another, where the difference is considerable, by means of
adjustable wheels and other expedients, have not hitherto been suc-
cessful. Such wheels work well at first, but rapidly deteriorate,
and become the source of serious expense, and even danger. There
has, therefore, been a desire to assimilate the gauges of lines
forming through routes, and this has led to several interesting and
extensive operations. Thus, the gauge of the main line of thd

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 77

Ohio and Mississippi railroad, from East St. Louis to Cincinnati,
was reduced from 6 feet to 4 feet 9 inches, under the direction
of Mr. Thomas D. Lovett, the Chief Engineer. Preparations were
made for the change by laying about one-half of the sharji curves
on the outside some months in advance. The sleepers were all
adzed to a gauge on each side ; the inside spikes were then driven
to a template. Proper sleejiers were put in with new crossings,
and the switch rods were cut ready for the narrow gauge, and
jointed temporarily for broad-gauge use ; the tools employed
were of the best pattern, and made expressly for the work. The
road was then divided into sections of 5 miles each, and to each
section fifty men were allotted. These were subdivided, twenty-
five commencing at each end of the section, and working towards
each other. The men were in gangs of ten ; three of them drew
the spikes, three followed and threw in the rails, and the remaining
four drove in the new spikes. Labourers were furnished freely
by other companies for this purpose ; and their distribution and
feeding demanded considerable care. At midnight on a Saturday
the line was cleared of broad-gauge stock, and at 4 a.m. on Sundaj'
morning the work of narrowing was commenced, both rails being
moved in, each to the extent of 7^ inches, thus reducing the gauge
to 4 feet 9 inches. By 11 a.m., or in seven hours, the narrowing
was completed for the whole distance of 354 miles, and before 6 p.m.
narrow-guage trains had run over the entire road. Similar opera-
tions have since been carried out with great success on the Grand
Trunk and Great ^N'estern railways of Canada and elsewhere.

The mode of carrying on light earthworks, by means of large
%vooden scrapers, is worthy of notice. The ground is generally
ploughed over first, and four scrapers, each with a j^air of horses
and a driver, work round and round in a circle, without stopping
(one man to the gang being employed to guide the scrapers
whilst filling, and to tip them when full), the circumference of
the circle on the one side reaching the centre of the excavation,
and on the other the spoil bank. In soft soils this is very
economical. Hand and steam excavating machines are also largely
used. One form is that of a plough, for excavating ditches, the
earth being thrown well clear of the ditch b}- an endless band.
Willard's machine, which is used for ' dumping ' or tipping from
side cutting on to embankments in the soft soils of the West, con-
sists of a scraper, combined with an endless band, by which the
earth is carried into a hopper. This being full, the whole machine
is moved on to the site of the embankment, and the earth tipjied.
Chapman's machine is a crane, running on a temporary railway,

78 THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD.

and having attached to it a scoop or "bucket with a toothed edge
of steel. This bucket is attached to a beam which rotates on an
adjustable axis fixed on the jib of the crane. It can thus, by
applying power to the crane, be forced into the ground and filled,
then lifted to any required height, swung round, and tipped.

An examination of the official returns from the different com-
panies, so far as they extend, shows that, whilst the weight of rails,
almost universally of the Vignoles section, varies from 67 lbs. to
70 lbs. per yard on a few of the leading lines, to 30 lbs. on the
narrow-guage lines, fully 60 per cent, of the length is laid with
rails 56 lbs. to the yard, the weights having the next preference
being 60 lbs. on the one hand, and 50 lbs. on the other.

On some lines, newly laid with steel rails with suspended joints,
supports of hard wood, 9 inches wide by 2 inches thick, are inserted
as longitudinal bearers under the joint, resting on the transverse
sleepers on each side. Since dog-spikes only are used as fastenings,
and the joints are not fished on many of the lines, there is a
tendency on gradients for the rails to creep downwards, closing
the joints tightly at the bottom, and leaving at the summit an open
space of several inches. This space is sometimes filled with a hard
wood block, driven in tightly, but in other cases with a ' plug-
chair,' which is an ordinary cast-iron chair, with a tongue or
dummy rail cast on the rail-seat. Plug-chairs are of various
lengths to suit diiferent-sized intervals.

The almost universal practice is to lay the permanent way on
the formation. The materials, and, in the case of the Pacific and
other Western lines, cars to form dwellings and canteens, are
moved forward over it in a construction train. The greatest length
of way thus laid in any one day on the Central Pacific railroad
exceeded 10 miles ; the average for a considerable period being-
s' miles per day. Ballast is then bi-ought over the line, and the
permanent way lifted and packed, expansion plates being fre-
quently inserted at the joints during the operation to prevent their
closing up.

On the Union Pacific railroad, two sections of permanent way,
300 miles each, were allotted, the one to white men, and the other
to Chinese, and the latter maintained the road better, and at 10 per
cent, less cost than the former.

Where timber is abundant (especially in Canada), wooden rail-
roads have sometimes been introduced. The permanent way, if
this be not a misnomer, there costs about £240 per mile. It con-
sists of maple rails, 4 inches wide and 7 inches deep, c\it into 14-feet
lengths, wedged into notches in transverse sleepers, and abutting-

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 7[>

npuu each other at the joints. Some of these rails have lasted
more than five years, Leing run over by locomotives, having wheels
with 5i inches tread, and M^ith no flange on tlio leading pair of
driving wheels, at a speed of from 15 miles to 20 miles per hour.
These railroads are chiefly for carrying cordwood and other lumber.
Gradients of 1 in 18 are worked at a speed of 10 miles an hour by
locomotives of 28 tons weight, having four coupled and four bo^-ie
wheels, the load being 80 tons, exclusive of their own weight. The
adhesion is good when the rails are dry, but small when they are
wet. The total cost of such a railroad, including a small amount
of rolling stock, is about £1,200 per mile.

The severity of the climate in the Eastern States and Canada adds
greatly to the cost of maintenance. During from four to six months,
the road bed remains hard and rigid, the sleepers frozen into the
ballast, and a good top is kept on the rails, as before mentioned,
only by ' shimming,' or j)acking with hard wood wedges between
the rail and the sleeper. Moderate falls of snow are cleared by a
small plough attached to the cowcatcher; but for heavy drifts
snow-ploughs of more elaborate construction are necessary; and,
even with these, days are often consumed before the line can be
cleared. Trains have, in some instances, been so long blocked in
this manner as to render the feeding of the passengers a matter of
serious diflSculty. The plough (Plate 7) is that now used on the
Grand Trunk railway. It is mounted on two bogie trucks, and is
30 feet long, 7 feet 7 inches high to the top of the plough and
■11 feet high in the hinder part. It is fitted with expanding wino-s
for throwing out the snow, and with a movable apron for clearino-
the rails and the space between them. There are also scrapers to
clear the rails of ice. The interior is provided with seats and a
stove. The plough is propelled by one or more locomotives, as may
be required, as many as five being sometimes necessary. "When the
frost breaks up in the spring, the state of the road for some weeks i&
such as to demand the most vigilant care, and a large expenditure
to restore it to proper line and level.

The water tanks are of special construction, and are generally
covered with wood. In the best forms, air-spaces and layers of
sawdust are interposed to keep out the frost ; and the pipes are
arranged to empty themselves of water. The tanks are often
supplied by pumps worked by windmills.

Progress in railroad construction in the United States has not
extended hitherto, in any great measure, to lines for the daily use
of those who dwell in the chief cities. Frequently the railroads have
their termini at a long distance from the business centres ; and in

80 THE PENNSYLVANIA EAILROAD.

Kcw York especially, great inconvenience arises from this cause,
the requirements of the traffic being most inadequately met by the
horse -railroads. These are laid with rails projecting above the
surface of the street, and are a source of danger to ordinary
vehicles, and in the narrow and crooked thoroughfares of the
older part of that city bring about serious blocks of the street
traffic. Goods, and a few passenger trains are still conveyed
through the streets by horses into stations at right angles to the
thoroughfare, the cars, fitted with the bogie, readily turning into
them round curves of small radii. Whilst this is true of the large
centres of trade, it is curious, on the other hand, to notice how
main lines are carried on the level, and without protection, across
the streets of considerable towns, the express trains often running
through without stojDping.

A commencement has now been made in New York to remedy
the evils above referred to, by the construction of a large terminal
station at 42nd Street, and of an underground railroad northwards
to the New York Central and Haarlem railroads, the works of
which are difficult and costly. This line, however, when com-
pleted, will only bring the traffic to a point still 4 miles distant
from the business centre.

The railroad sj^stem having extended so largely on both sides of
the great rivers of the West and North- West, colossal works have
been carried out at St. Louis, at Buffalo, and elsewhere, to esta-
blish through communications. Some of these works, involving-
very difficult foundations, possess the greatest practical interest ;
and detailed descriptions of them by the Engineers engaged would
prove most valuable additions to the records of the Institution.

In conclusion, the Authors desire very heartily to acknowledge
the courtesy with which Mr. A. J. Cassatt, the General Manager,
Mr. Isaac Dripps, Superintendent of Motive Power, Mr. Collins,
Mechanical Engineer, and other officers of the Pennsylvania rail-
road have specially prepared the detailed information necessary for
this communication. They are also indebted to Mr. Eaton, of the
Grand Trunk railway, whilst they have made much use of the
statistics published by Mr. Henry V. Poor, in his Manual of the
Kailroads of the United States, and by the Committee of Stock-
holders of the Pennsylvania Eailroad Company.

The communication is accompanied by a series of drawings, from
which Plates 4, 5, 6, and 7 have been compiled.

[Appendix.

THE PENNSYLVANIA KAILROAD.

APPENDIX.

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[1874-75. N.S.]

WIT'-

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILEOAD.

Table II. — Performances of Locomotives on tlic Pennsylvania Eailroad.

Year.

No. of

Freight
Engines.

No. of Dis-

No. of

tributing

Shifting

Engines. '

Engines.

So M3 .s
= £60
H "S a

o § 5 S" ^'

^ -H .- 03

to~ iS.S a
M.a c .a S

ii to

1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873

235
232
253
270
278
314
316
338
401
456

38 !

52 1

1,581,305
1,516,463
1,682,302
1,724,566
1,958,770
1,925,093
2,fl'91,088
2,375,334
2,389,847
2,442,384

17.448
17.987
18,288
18,611
19,521
18,342
19,526
21,839
22,302
23,213

Cents.

87
28

1-54

1-25
1-20
1-00

0-87

0-886

0-857

Table III. — Locomotives and RoLsiisjsfG Stock of the Pennsylvania Eailroad.

Description.

1861.

1862.

1863. 1864. 1865. 1866.

1S67.

No. of Locomo tives .

(Passenger, &c. .
Cars 1 Freight and Coal .
(Service ....

Totals . . .

1 • ■ . ^:> ...^

229

255

290 314 368

362

428

157

3,086
558

158
4,016 -

562

173

1,926

616

232 230

4,845 4,842

709 750

264 302

4,878 5,2-1

728 727

3,801

4,736 .

5,715

5,786 5,822

5,870 6,2501

1 J

i . ;. . .;
Desterjpti6i?V /

1868.

1869.

18 TO.

1871.

1872.

1873.

No. of Locoinoiitjes.

[ Passenger, &c. . .

Cars I Freight and Coal .

( Service ....

Totals . " . .

434

477

482

514 593

668

318

5,490

718

; 346

5,643

738

331

6,632

731

403 718
6,685 11,211
1,440 j 2,168

763
13,029

2,592

6,526

[ 6,727 7,694 8.528 14,097

16,384=

r ^j

' In this year 2,536 coal cars on the road were owned by other parties than
the company.

2 In this year 8,501 freight and coal cars on the road were owned by other parties
than the company.

lk7i!<;A.uS>i«iif; ■*' < 8 -i/'ilimi-

Table IV.— 5
the t'

Description of Ve

'Tli* PENXSTLTANIA RAILROAD. t

■I

gfva bTATEMEstr.uf Locomotives and ri<^L&(^ ;g'rtK:K i|»,
iKiVt'f'OfSr,' in I^jbiA,'' and in tlie United IrJItEff; V'.S ' \

r,f;dom:, I

-■ oijcn.j. !

■JW \ — »■ ii .11. I n lSl.

India.
5,67-t Miles open.

10 Miles.

Locomotives .
Passenger Cars
Goods Wasrons

■,4^5 i^ 7-r;;pi,343

*:23:;0,|l4^„729
^05-0 l&,432

Total N"*

'10Mil<.>tt

2-36
6-57
41-3

1^,74,

25,85^i

678.H4^i^

!fe, nearly.

95/0

' In order to institute a fan.- C0mpansott-,"tlie American passenger cate and goods

wagons. Laving double the Capacity of those of the United; KiugdoMLi-anid India,
are each counted as two. * ^ ' • ■>}. \ "",

Table V. — The following is a list pt all the (Jurves on the PENNS¥LT^^iA,.IvAiLK(i!ii4
3Iain Line (except the Phila. Erv.) whose radius is less than 1^00 feet^'jgiviug tl>e '
position and length of same. >

Stations.

Rockville

"West end Susq. Bridge

East of Duneannon .

Mexico ....

Barnifflin and Lewis\
town, 136 m. jwst

Bixless Water Station

East of Lewistown .

Wesi, oi Mapletown .

East of Huntingdon

Petersburg .

„ west of

'. East of Spruce Creek

„ ,, Union Furnace
' West ., .,

East of Birmingham

"West „

5»

Tyrone

"West of Altdona

" " "
East of Ki ttjinni n g Point

West of

Alligrippu's

Radius.

Length' of 1
Cum. !

Miles.
819-0
996-0
716-8
955-4

955-4

955'

955

881'

955'

996-

955'

954'

955

955'

955

955'

819-0
674-7
637-3
955-4

716-8

Stations.

io#

68&v.,|
95{?;V

725

776'
1124 '

336

575

888

547

759
1649

961

432
1079

416

908

875

790

381

682
1231

804
1464

308
1380

938

628

West of Alligrij^pu's

Bennington
Gallitzin
West of Lillies .

Big Viaduct .
West of Big Viaduct
East of Conemaugh

Johnstown, C. I. Works

Dormock Point

West of Dormock Point

I.iOckpoi;t

West of Bolivar .

East of Blairsville Int,

West of Greeusburg
Turtle Creek . .
East of Brinton's •.

At Brintnn's .
West.of Brinton's .

West "of Braddock'
Field. ...
,, „ Millvalc .

IVIi^les.

9»5-4
7^1-8
955^-4

8fiJ2-0
95^-4

790-8
974-3
955-4

739.' 9
955-4

819-0
954-4
716-8
8i9-0
955-4

929-6
955-4

Feet.

27^

744

1130

884

1360

1380

258

1926

1410

1028

514

1278

856

551

1521

lo()2

1443

1494

663

416

1222

1581

391

600

900

683

500

716

800

G 2

THE PENNSYLVANIA EAILROAD.

Table VI. — Position of points on the Pennsylvania Railroad at wliicb the average

GRADE CHANGES, and the ELEVATION of these POINTS.

Distance

Elevation

Distance

Elevation

stations.

from Phila-

above

Stations.

from Phila-

above

delphia.

High Tide.

delphia.

High Tide.

Miles.

Feet.

Miles.

Feet.

West Phila

0-0

20-0

McVeytown

. . 178-4

515-3

Athensville ....

7-7

351-0

Manayunk .

. . 183-0

511-6

Beyond Villa Nova

11-7

424-0

Newton Hamilton

. . 188-5

592-0

„ Radnor .

13-8

390-0

Mount Union .

. . 191-4

590-5

„ Reeseville .

18-2

518-0

Mapleton .

. . 194-5

586-3

„ Paoli

20-3

544-0

MUl Creek . .

. . 197-8

596-5

„ Malvern

21-8

540-0

Huntingdon

. . 203-1

615-4

East of Downingtowii .

321

247-0

Warrior Bridge T^

^aterj 207.7

674-3

Beyond Columbia .

37-2

372-0

Station .

„ Coatesville ,

38-8

372-0

Petersburg .

'. '. 209-6

670-9

„ Parkesburg

44-9

554-0

Barree .

. . 212-9

716-6

„ Renningtonville

47-6

480-0

Spruce Creek .

. . 215-5

769-8

East of Gap ....

50-9

566-0

Birmingham

. . 220-3

859-5

West of Leaman Place .

57-8

358-0

Tyrone .

. . 222-9

901-4

East of Bird-in-hand .

60-0

392-0

Bells Mills . .

. . 230-3

1053-3

West „ „

62-2

340-0

Altoona . . .

. . 237-2

1171-3

?) jj '>

63-55

377-0

West of Altoona

. . 238-2

1223-5

Big Conestoga Bridge .

67-1

300-0

« *» »»

. . 238-4

1220-5

West of Lancaster .

69-6

364-0

Kittanning Point

. . 242-4

1581-5

Little Conestoga Bridge'
Landisville ....

72-3
75-9

307-0
398-0

East of Allegl
Tunnel . .

;^^y} 248-2

2116-8

Big Chiquis Bridge

78-1

354-0

Gallitzin .

'. '. 249-0

2154-4

» ») M '

78-9

370-0

Name not known

. . 252-1

2011-2

Little Chiquis Bridge .

80-1

304-0

West of Wilmore

. . 262-6

1542-1

?? ♦» »i

81-0

368-0

East of Summer H

ill . 264-0

1562-2

East cf Elizabethtown .

85-9

468-0

West of Conemaug

h . 275-0

1176-4

West „

88-8

492-0

Johnstown ,

. . 275-9

1176-4

Int. with Col. Br. E. of]
Middletown . . .j

95-6

306-0

East of Ninevah

. . 285-0

1119-0

„ „ New Flore

nee 289-2

1074-7

Harrisburg' ....

105-4

313-0

West Houston's

. . 291-8

1040-4

Dillerville Int. of Col.]
Br. with new Line- . J

70-0

351-0

Names not given

. . 295-6

1023-9

Jf ?t J)

. . 303-2

1136-4

West of Dillerville-.

71-2

317-0

)5 ?' ?l

. . 308-5

1199-2

,, „ Rohrerstown* .

74-6

416-0

East of Latrobe

. . 312-1

999-4

East of Mountville^ .

75-6

416-0

TJ ?♦ ?» '

. . 313-4

997-3

Columbia^ ....

80-9

242-0

Carre Tunnel .

318-3

1201-8

Int. with Union Line" .

99-5

306-0

East of George's

319-0

1170-1

West of Harrisburg .

107-4

339-6

West of „

319-6

1191-7

?• »» J) • •

109-8

327-2

East of Greensburj

? . 322-3

1058-3

East end Susq. Bridge .

1110

343-4

West of

324-4

1163-6

Aqueduct ....

123-3

370-3

EastofPenn. .

328-5

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128-5

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Swissvale .

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THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 89

Mr. Charles Douglas Fox remarked, that this Paper had grown
out of visits which his brother and he had made to the Penn-
sylvania railroad, and of the kind offer by the officers of the com-
pany to supply the detailed information necessary for such a com-
munication. He knew, of course, of the excellent Papers by the
late Mr. Colburn,^ and of the long discussions to which they
gave rise, so that he had some hesitation in presenting a further
one dealing apparently with the same subject. But he felt that,
although the whole question of locomotives and of rolling stock in
the United States had been brought forward, no complete and
systematic account of an}' particular railroad had been placed
before the Institution, and he had therefore chosen for description
one of the best railroads in that country, both as regarded con-
struction and working.

The progress of American railroads during the last few years
had been very great. In five years there had been constructed no
less than 28,390 miles, involving an exiienditure at the rate of about
£55,000,000 per annum. This rate of increase, however, was
abnormal, and was chiefly brought about by the large land grants
made by the legislatures to the companies. The result had been
to cause extensions into districts where probably railways might
not otherwise have penetrated. The chief extension of late years
had been towards the west ; and it was considered by some of the
most eminent authorities that it had now more than reached (at
any rate for some years) its extreme profitable limit. Many of
the western railways did not pay. They depended for their traffic
chiefly upon agricultural produce, and the great market for that
l^roduce was in Europe ; so that the farmer had to sell his corn
at Liverpool prices, less the cost of land transport to the eastern
seaboard and the freight to Liverpool. There was, therefore, a
limit to the distance westward at which corn could be profitably
grown for the European market. In the report of the Investigat-
ing Committee already referred to, it was stated that the western
extension of raihv^ads for agricultural purposes had reached its
limits, as regarded dealing with the Eiiropean suj^pl}^ ; and that
what was now needed in the west was the growth of manufac-
tures, in order that manufacturers and agriculturists might provide
trafiic for each other. The gross earnings of the American railroads
in 187.) amounted to about 13 per cent, of their cost; the net
earnings during the same period were 4*96 per cent., and the

1 Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. xxii., p. 540, and vol. xxviii.,
p. 3G0.

^0 THE PENNSYLVANIA KAILKOAD.

earnings per head, £2 6s. 9d. If, therefore, the future extension
Avas not carried on in too rapid a manner — if the railroad system
had rest, it was clear that, Avith an immigration of over one million
persons annually, the net receipts must largely increase, and the
general financial results become satisfactory. The Pennsylvania
Kailroad Company had heen, on the whole, the most successful
in the country. This was attributed to three causes. (1) Its
originators had the wisdom to purchase large quantities of land
at the chief stations. Many people then thought them wasteful
and extravagant, but their foresight had been of the utmost
importance to the company as regarded its great centres of trade,
especially at Philadelphia. (2) The main line was now worth
more than double the original cost. (3) The company had the
control, in one way or another, of 5,933 miles of railroad, by
means of working agreements, or by holding large quantities of
stock, giving them the chief voice in the management. "With
regard to the large goods wagons emplo^^ed in America, some of
them 28 or 30 feet long, they might be valuable for through
freight for long distances, but he thought they must be incon-
venient where the goods had to be picked up at roadside stations.
This great length had probably groAvn out of the use of the
bogie truck. As to the question of chilled wheels, he had heard no
diiference of opinion either in America or in Canada. He was
present when attempts were made to break up some of the wheels,
and he was greatly surprised at their tenacity. It seemed more
like trying to break wrought iron than cast iron. For wheels
which, as in the case of leading trucks, had to perform the duty
of guiding the train, and which had their tires constantly press-
iug against the rails, there was nothing, in the opinion of
American managers, like cast iron. The large and cumbrous snow-
plough (Plate 7) was not too strong for its purpose. The stove
was an important part of the arrangement. It was not an un-
common thing (it had happened to a relative of his own) to spend
three days and three nights in one of the ploughs. Mr. Carl Pihl,
of Norway, had been successful in stopping snow-drifts, by fencing
placed at a short distance from the line. He explained the traffic
diagram used in working single lines in America, which was
similar to that introdixced long since by Mr. Brunlees, and to the
one exhibited by Mr. Price Williams in the discussion on rail-
way signals.^ It was arranged with pins and threads ; and as the
train despatcher, who had charge of 100 or 150 miles of line, was

' Vide Minutes of Troceedings Inst. C.E., vol. xxxviii., p. 233.

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 91

informed by telegraph of any hitches, ho could show by moving the-
pins how the stoppages and crossings of the trains were to be
modified.

Mr. F. W. Webb would have been glad if a description had been
given of the arrangements for working the traffic, especially
with regard to refuge sidings, w-hich, instead of being on o)ie side
of the line, were generally pnt in the middle, between the np and
the down lines, so that they could be used for traffic running in
either direction. Where the bulk of the traffic went sometimes in
one direction and sometimes in another, that plan was useful, and
it might, he thought, be copied with advantage. He had spent
a good deal of time on the Pennsylvania railroad, and he agreed
with the Authors, that the examples there presented of locomotive
practice were about the best that could be seen in America. Cast
iron was used to a larger extent than in this country, and he
thought, in some cases, with advantage. The locomotives also
had much smaller driving wheels. In this country the limits of
driving wheels for a properly -balanced engine had been exceeded.
Since his visit to America he had investigated the matter, and
was now running some of the fastest express trains on the
London and North-Western railway, including " The Flying
Scotchman," mth locomotives having driving wheels of G6 inches
in diameter. ^ The first engine of that class had run 26,000 miles
without needing repairs, and would probably run 26,000 miles
more before showing any sign of wearing out. It seemed likely
that, the carriage of petroleum on the railroad in question would
be superseded, as pipes were being laid down, and it was pro-
posed to pump it to towns 20 or 30 miles distant. He believed
that Mr. Pullman had done great service to the travelling public
in America ; but the Pullman car was an unwieldy thing to deal
with ; and he thought after it had been used for a short time in
England passengers would be content with a smaller carriage.
For himself he should be sorry to ride in a carriage the only
exit from which was at the ends, where the adjacent carriages
were trying to get in, or, in familiar phrase, to telescope it, as
occasional collisions could not be avoided; and he should like to
have something better than an arm-chair to jirevent his being shot
a distance of 40 feet into a plate-glass window. Another dis-
advantage was that the passenger had not the control of the
window, as in ordinary carriages. There was also the objection of
dead weight. The cars brought over to this country he under-
stood weighed 21 tons, to carry twenty-four passengers ; but on
going to bed the passengers went into another car, leaving the

92 THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD.

other empty. This was not the way to reduce the weight of the
trains, which was felt to be so desirable. When Sir Joseph
Whitworth took the matter in hand, some time ago, he had hoped
that something might be accomplished, but no result appeared
hitherto to have been arrived at. The high-class steel, referred to
in the Paper, was said to have a tensile strength of 90,000 lbs. ; but
he was satisfied when steel had a breaking strain of 65,000 lbs.
per square inch. This would stretch 30 per cent, before breaking ;
and he found no difficulty, in the boilers he had made, in keeping
to a uniform standard — within 5,000 lbs. per square inch. He had
onl}'- a short experience of the Westinghouse break. The vacuum
break had been in use on the St. John's Wood line, and was being
tried on the South Junction at Manchester. There were no
chilled tires on the North- Western line. He thought a great
deal of the difficulty in connection with the use of steel tires in
America would be overcome if the outer rail were elevated on
curves instead of reliance being placed on the bogie truck for the
guiding. It was stated that an engine took 223 tons up the
incline at Altoona in thirty -five minutes. It was also stated that
another engine took 215 tons up the same incline, and had
evaporated 2,400 gallons of water in less than an hour. He
thought there must be some inaccuracy in the statement with
regard to the evaporative power of the engine, or that water as
well as steam passed into the cylinder. It was not possible for
an engine to evaporate so large an amount of water in the time.

Mr. T. W. WoRSDKLL believed he inaugurated the experiments on
the Pennsylvania railroad to which reference had been made. He
thought there must be a mistake in some of the figures cited. The
amount of water evaporated in going up the gradient of 1 in 55
from Altoona to the summit of the mountain had, to his know-
ledge, never exceeded 1,600 gallons, and that great evaporation was
sometimes due to saturated steam. The greatest load he remembered
an engine taking up the mountain was about 240 tons, and that
was accomplished just within the hour, the evaporation of water
being 1,600 gallons. During his connection with the Pennsylvania
railroad the company began the manufacture of steel boilers, and
entered into it more extensively than any other railway or manu-
facturing firm. He had been engaged in the construction of
about one hundred and twent}'- steel boilers and two hundred and
fifty fire-boxes. When the copper fire-boxes were worn out very
thin crucible steel was substituted. It was stated in the Paper
that all the steel was subjected to a particular test, and the
tensile strength was given as 90,000 lbs. per square inch, but the

THE PENNSYLVANIA KAILROAD. 93

steel in question coTild not be submitted to that test. Some of it
had a tensile strength of 90,000 lbs., but that was used for the
barrel plates of the boiler. The fire-box was steel of a lower
temper, and was tested by heating it to red heat and plunging it
in cold water. The steel was supposed to be perfect after the
first dipping ; but it was ascertained by experience that if heated
and dipped seven times, it became slightly softer; after that it
began to lose its softness. The thickness of the plates was ^ inch ;
he would willingly have used plates of y^^-inch, if it had been
possible to screw the stays in. After dipping, a mechanical test
showed that the steel was sufficiently soft and pliable for flanging
purposes. In the construction of steel fire-boxes, it was discovered
that if the flanges were not turned away from the fire in the front
part of the box the rivet-holes were apt to crack, even with the
best steel. On coming to this country, in 1870, he found that
Mr. Webb had a fire-box constructed in the same way of steel
plates, and with flanges turned away from the fire ; and, curiously
enough, with a very thin copper lining such as was used for
caulking. On the Pennsylvania railroad it was customary to
stay the roof of the fire-box according to the old-fashioned plan,
bracing it from the crown bars to the roof of the boiler. But
when steel fire-boxes were employed it was ascertained that, with
vertical steel sides, the pressure could be supported without staying.
The i:)ractice of staying to the roof of the boiler was then discon-
tinued, without even a partial explosion, or a fracture ensuing.
It appeared singular, however, to trust entirely to the flat top of
the fire-box, supported only by bar stays, and a boiler was accord-
ingly ordered by the superintendent to be stayed in the usual
way ; and yet that part of the boiler blew up after it had been
about three years in service. That w^as the result of over-
pressure ; but the others had, no doubt, been subject to the
same pressure many times. The side of the exploded boiler had
a seam, and there appeared to be some expansion and contraction
working against it, which caused the guttering in so short a time,
and led to the explosion. The other boilers were examined imme-
diately to ascertain whether they were defective, but there was
not the slightest sign of guttering. Another feature, peculiar to
American locomotives, was the great use of cast iron, which was
employed even for slide valves. He knew from experience that
cast-iron valves lasted longer than the brass valves in common
use in England, especially those with white metal let into them.
A valve w^is seldom broken, although the area was large. Tlie
weak point, if any, about the ordinary American cylinder was

94 THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD.

the enormous steam cLest. The driving wheels were commonly
solid. The Pennsylvania Company was, he believed, the first to
make them Avith hollow spokes and rims, which they did with
great advantage. He had seen many outside cylinder coupled
express engines with every spoke broken, the crank rattling within
the spokes, and the wheel only held together by a good English
steel tire ; but he had never known one of the hollow-spoke
wheels to be broken except in cases of collision or "jumping the
track." He remembered a curious circumstance in connection with
hollow-spoke wheels. Water had been applied to cool the tire on,
without regard to stopping the core-holes ; and in the winter the
spokes were found cracked in a longitudinal direction. It seemed
that the water had got into the holes and cracked the spokes. This,
of course, was an unforeseen accident. The spokes answered very
well, and were extremely light. The practice of balancing with
lead was a bad one. The method employed was that of casting a
cavity in the wheel and pouring the lead in. By constant use the
lead became pounded into a smaller size. This system was a
source of great trouble, and he could not recommend it. The
smoke-burning arrangements were similar to those adopted in this
country, and of great variety ; but the most efficient, and one which
he believed was not adopted in this country, was an arch stretching
from the tube plate below the tubes up towards the fire-door. The
arch was made with flat bricks, which extended across the fire-box,
supported by the water tubes, these tubes forming a kind of loop
on which the bricks were laid. One advantage of this 9,rrange-
ment was ascertained accidentally. An engine had got short of
water, — the pumps would not work, or the injectors had failed, —
but there w^as a kind of injection of water on the top of the fire-box
which kept it cool until the fire was put out. It was the practice to
carry heavy fires, and to employ large fire-boxes, so that these water
tubes formed a useful safeguard. The tubes of the boiler were
large, a curious circumstance seeing that there was a sharp
exhaust. The exhaust was necessarily sharjj, on account of " the
smoke stack," or funnel, being composed of a quantity of obstructive
material, such as the inverted cone, the netting, and sometimes
double pipes, causing the draught to travel up and down two or
three times. He was inclined to think there was too much com-
plication in these arrangements. In some of the illustrations ex-
hibited by the Authors, the engines had not the American type of
■chimney. The netting was adopted in consequence of the old
system of wood -burning. In dry seasons, the sjjarks, if they
escaped, set fire to the long grass by the side of the road, and the

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD, 05

flames spread to the neighbouring property-. The piiLlic appeared
(piito aAvare of an}- change in the formation of this part of an
engine ; for if an engine passed, exhibiting anj- difterencc in con-
struction, and a fire liappened in the neighbourhood of the rail-
road, it was always attributed to the emission of sparks. It might
be, in STich cases, that the apparatus for preventing the emission
of sparks was more perfect inside the boiler or smoke-box than
was apparent outside. The tubes for goods engines were generall}-
2.V inches in diameter, and for passenger engines about 2\ inches.
The longest distance he knew of from tube plate to tube plate
was 14 feet 10 inches.

Mr. BiJAMWELL asked if Mr. Worsdell could state the per-
centage of carbon in the two kinds of steel, used in the barrel and
in the fire-box respectively.

Mr. WonsDELL said that the steel was only tested mechanically,
not chemically, but he should imagine that the percentage of
carbon in the fire-box steel would be 0 • 18 or 0 • 20, and in the barrel
steel 0-24: or .0-25.

Mr. Barlow said that when engineers travelled abroad and
brought home the results of their experience, the information thus
obtained was most valuable. It was important, however, that the
facts should be given accurately ; or, at any rate, that the mean-
ing of the Authors should be properly understood. He was not
quite sure whether the remarks in the Paper as to steel had been
quite understood. It had been stated that steel of the tensile
strength of 90,000 lbs. to the square inch could not bear the test
of being chilled and bent double. But it was said in the Paper
that " a sample of every plate of steel used in the construction of
a boiler is tested by being heated to redness, and then plunged
into cold water; after which the same piece, while cold, is bent
double." And again, " The tensile strength of some of the steel,
Avhich is made at Pittsburgh, is 90,000 lbs."

Mr. Fox said he did not intend to speak of the two steels as
identical.

Ml'. Barlow thought that the statement with regard to the
use of cast-iron chilled wheels, as compared with steel, was
not quite clear. It was alleged that steel wheels would not
bear the severe shock of guiding a locomotive over the sinu-
osities of the line, while chilled wheels answered the purpose
perfectly, very rarely breaking, and one such wheel would outlive
at least three steel wheels. Farther on it was stated, that the
driving wheels of engines, although made of cast iron were tired
with steel. It was difficult to understand how one material wns

96 THE PENNSYLVANIA EAILEOAD.

required for a carriage wheel and another material for a driving
wheel. Some explanation on that point was required. He also de-
sired to ask whether the time said to have been occupied in relaying
so extensive a length of line — he believed over 300 miles — namely,
seven hours, was based upon official information, or was merely a
hearsay statement from the engineers of the line. If it was a fact,
it was one of the most remarkable performances on record. Another
point to which he desired to direct attention was the difference in
the methods of construction employed in America 'and in Eng-
land. In the former country a machine of some kind was ap-
parently used for the removal of earthwork instead of men and
horses, but no such machine was known here. With regard to
Pullman's carriages, considered in the abstract the less dead
weight there was to carry the better. If a carriage with a
certain degree of comfort could be produced of a small weight
instead of a large one, undoubtedly it would prove the more
valuable article. But there was a certain attractive power
about a Pullman's carriage, which ought not to be overlooked, a
power which brought passengers to it who would not otherwise
travel by railway. A Pullman's carriage weighed somewhat over
20 tons. The cost of hauling that weight was about 1 hd. a mile ;
that was the sum which the Midland Company proposed to
charge for first-class passengers, so that one first-class passenger
would pay the haulage of the carriage. If the attractive power
of the carriage brought more than one first-class passenger it
would of course pay itself. He understood, from a speech recently
delivered elsewhere, that the carriage had proved attractive, and
that the Midland Company contemplated extending the system.
He did not think a fair comparison could be drawn between one
carriage and another without taking into consideration the at-
tractive power of the carriage, or the comfort and luxury which
it offered to passengers.

Mr. Brajiwell said he gathered from Mr. Worsdell that it was
customary in the United States to stay fire-boxes to the upper part
of the semicircular roof of the boiler. (Mr. Worsdell said that
when copper fire-boxes were i;sed that was the case.) It was also
stated that, on using steel boxes, the practice was discontinued,
and reliance was placed on girder stays upon the roof of the fire-
box, and that when, yielding to the representations of certain
persons, one of the boxes was again stayed to the semicircular
roof of the boiler, a disastrous result took place. During a dis-
cussion at the Institution on a Paper by Mr. Eobinson on Loco-
motives, when that kind of staying came under observation, he

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 97

tjuid,' and now lepeated, that, to his mind, it was perfectly clear
the staying-up of a fire-box to the semicircular roof of the boiler
must of necessity put a strain upon the outer shell of the fire-box,
and that a disastrous result ought to happen, he would not say an
explosion, but the gradual and successive giving way of the side
stays. These propositions were denied at the time, but it was
admitted that stays had given way just in the place where he
said they ought to give way. If there were a semicircular roof to
a boiler, and the flat top of the fire-box were not stayed to it,
the semicircular part of the roof was in balance, and the screw side
stays would not be called upon to play any other part than to hold
in the small superficies which each stay subtended ; but by hanging
up the roof of the box to the arch above it by radiating stays, the
balance of pressure on the upper part of the boiler was taken off",
and lateral strains were thus thrown upon the side stays, which
they otherwise would not have had to bear ; the result was that
the top side stays, the screw stays, gave way, the top row first,
then the next, and so on. He had always understood that this
<lefect occurred in those cases where staying up to the roof of the
boiler bad been practised in England, and that it ceased to occur
when girder stays were trusted to. He was not surprised to hear
that the result of staying up one of the steel fire-boxes to the semi-
circular roof of the boiler was not successful. It seemed to him
that it ought not to have been so, because, owing to the hanging
up of the flat roof of the fire-box to the semicircular top of the
boiler, the balance of pressure was destroyed.

Mr. "Webb remarked that with fire-boxes rigidly staj-ed to the
uuter casing, when the fire was lighted in the engine, the internal
box was the first to expand, and the effect of that was either to
depress the crown, to bend the roof stays, or to force up the outer
shell, thus contributing to create a groove along the longitudinal
seam joining the crown-plate of the outer casing to the side plates.
The plan adopted at Crewe was to sling the fire-box to the outer
casing in such a way, that though the fire-box could expand up-
wards, when the pressure was in the boiler, the fire-box roof was
well supported and coxild not come down.

Mr. Michael Longridge thought that information about American
railroads must be particularly interesting because of the great dif-
ference between the systems in the two countries ; and any facts
that would contrast the two systems, so as to indicate which
should bo employed in a particular case, could not be other-

* Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. xxxvii., p. 26.
[1874-75. N.S.] H

THE PENKSYLVANIA KAILROAD.

wise than useful. In some cases there could be no choice. Ko
engineer would establish what was known as an American railroad
to carry the vast traffic of this country at the high speeds now
required ; nor would it be possible in a place like South America
to raise the capital required to build works of the same solidity as
those constructed in this country. The colonies could raise money
at 5 or 6 per cent., and the Indian Empire at 4 or 5 per cent., and
then it became a question for an engineer to determine whether
it was better to pay 5 or 6 per cent, on the extra cost of heavier
rails, greater quantity of ballast, and a more enduring road, or
to bear the increased cost of maintenance of an inferior line. It
appeared from Table I. that the percentage of working expenses
to gross earnings for thirteen years was 65 per cent. In
Sweden, a country where the traffic resembled that of North
America, and where the climate was similar, the proportion on the
State lines was about 53 per cent., and on many other lines lower,
being in the case of the Gefle-Dala as low as 38 per cent.^ The

^ The following particulars of the working expenses and other details of the
Swedish railways, in 1870, have been furnished by Mr. Michael Longridge : —

Traffic.

Name.
Gauge 4' 8^".

Length of
single line.

Average

Cost per

Mile.

u
O

Wagons.

Train
Mileage.

Engl,
miles.

£.

No.

English
miles.

State Railway .

694

7,470

102

320 2,431

1,732,369

1,593,141

712,505

Gefle-Dala . .

6,797

19 615

240,744

112,750

429,010

Total of lines ©n't
above gauge J

927

6,960

144

428 3,483

2,341,255

2,260,805

1,582,729

The average receipts per passenger per mile were . . . . 0 • Gild.
, , , , ton of goods were 1 • 155d.

Receipts,

Name.

Passengers.

Luggnge,

Horses,

Carriages,

DdgS, &c.

Goods and
Cattle.

Miscellaneous
Receipts.

Total
Receipts.

state Railways .

Gefle-Dala . .

Totals . .

£.
140,176

6,370

170,013

£.
12,059

523

14,848

£.
224,475

77,227

349,088

£.
5,337

821

9,072

£.
382,047

84,941

543,021

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILEOAD.

Swedes, however, paid particular attention to ballasting. He sup-
posed that the large proportion of 05 per cent, on one of the Lest
lines in the United States was in a great measure due to the heavy

Expenditure.

^ <u

•ft

Name.

— >

is-

Traffic.

MisCfUamo
Expenses

Total
Expenditut

■n

Percent.ige
Capital.

£.

£.'£.!£.' £.

£.

State Hallways

56,758

78,308 58,827 9,224 203,117

178,930

53-2

3-5

Gefle-Dala .

10,098

12,678 7,079 2,246

32,101

52,840

37-9

13-6

Totals .

76,433

107,387 75,03015,996

274,846 268,175

50-6

Analysis of Traffic peb Mile.

Name.

Receipts.

Expenditure.

Passengers.

Lupgage,
Horses, Dogs,
Carriages, &c.

(Joods and
Cattle.

1
O O

Permanent
AVay.

Locemotive
Department.

Miscella-
neous

State Railways
Gefle-Dala .
Totals .

£. £.
201-9 17-4

1
111-6 9-2

183-4 16-0

£.
323-4

1,352-5

376-6

£.
7-7

14-3

9-8

£.

550-4

1,487-6

585-8

£. £.

81-8112-8

176-8222-0

82-5115-8

£.
84-8

123-8

80-9

£. ' £.
13-3292-7

39-4 562-0

17-3296-5

Analysis of Traffic per Train JIile.

Name.

Receipts.

1 Expenditure.

Passengers.

Luggage,

Horses, Dogs,

Carriages.

Total per
Train Mile.

Permanent
Way.

Locomotive
Department.

Total per
Train Mile.

State Railways

d.
19-42

d.
1-67

31-09 0-74

d.
52-92

d. d. d.

7-8610-86 8-15

d.
1-28

d.
28-15

Gefle-Dala .

6-34

0-52

76-99 0-82

84-67

10-0612-64 7-062-2432-00

1 1

Totals .

17-43

1-52

35-78 0-93

55-66

7-8311-01 7-691-6428-17

H 2

100 THE PENNSYLVANIA KAILEOAD.

cost of maiutenance of way and rolling stock. He wished that some
details of the heavy working expenses had been given. The amount
of dividend was much below the net revenue, and he could only
suppose that the balance was interest on bonded debt. There were
no particulars of the amount of bonded debt from year to year, the
number of miles opened, and the equivalent of a ton, which he
believed in America was sometimes 2,000 lbs. With these additions
Table I. woi;ld give the first cost of the line, the cost of main-
tenance, the traffic earned, and the train mileage — data sufficient
to enable a judgment to be formed of the economy of this line re-
latively to others. With regard to the snow fencing, that was a
practice extensively adopted in Sweden, and the cost of a snow
fence was often paid for in a single snowstorm.

Dr. Siemens hoped Mr. Fox would further explain the statement
that, for the whole of the rolling stock in America, chilled cast-
iron wheels were used in preference to steel-tired wheels. It was
not said that this was done on the ground of economy; but that
the steel tires had been tried for passenger cars, and that they
quickly became dangerous from rapid wear. It seemed extraordi-
nary that wheels with steel tires should wear so rapidly on American
lines, as to become positively dangerous after a short service, whilst
in this country chilled cast-iron wheels, which were formerly used
for coal wagons and rolling stock of that description, had been
abandoned on account of the dangerous character attaching to
them. He thought this difference must be owing to some peculiar
mode of manufacture, or to circumstances that had not been
explained. He believed the outer rail on curves on American lines
was not raised above the inner rail ; and it might be that a wrench
was thus imparted to the wheel in going round a curve which
tried steel tires more than it would try a solid wheel. Eeference
had been made in the Paper to the use of steel for structural pur-
poses. Steel boilers were general, and stress was laid upon their
being made of crucible steel. For the shell of a boiler, he could
understand that crucible steel would answer extremely well, because
it was relatively hard, and tensile strength was the highest de-
sideratum for the shell of a boiler. It was different in the case of
a fire-box, where extreme toughness was the desideratum ; and he
should imagine that the crucible was not the best mode of ob-
taining that degree of ductility, since it would be obtained
at the expense of strength. It had already been explained
that the statement, with regard to the ductility test, did not
apply to the steel which, when tried for tensile strength, gave a
result of 90,000 lbs. Thai certainly would appear to be excessive

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 101

for steel that took no temper. Steel that -would bear a tensile
strain of 90,000 lbs. to the square inch would, when chilled red-
hot, become hard to a certain extent, so that it could scarcely be
the same steel that stood the two tests. With regard to the
carbon, the figures quoted by Mr. Worsdell must, he thought, be
too low. A percentage of 0*18, or even of 0*25, was a very low
amount of carbon, even for the mildest steel. But one point
ought not to be lost sight of, namely, that carbon alone did not de-
termine the hardness of steel, but carbon and manganese. Steel
might be made almost devoid of carbon, which would, neverthe-
less, possess a certain amount of hardness if plenty of manganese
were employed. On the other hand, if very little manganese were
used, considerable ductility would be obtained, even with 0 • 5 per
cent, of carbon. Speaking from recent experience by Mr. Willis,
the chemist at the Landore Steel Works, he believed that it was
the sum of the two ingredients which determined the ductility
of the steel. Without manganese as an alloy mild steel would
break to pieces. If manganese appeared in excess, the steel became
hard, and would not stand a blow. Steel was a material capable
of being developed into almost any quality ; it required, therefore,
to be studied from various points of view. It was on such occa-
sions as the present that its application, its usefulness, and its
qualities for structural purposes became gradually more and more
understood.

Mr. Galbraith said the first point that attracted his notice in
the Paper was the dimensions given for the earthworks. Em-
bankments for a double line were said to be 24 feet 3 inches wide
at formation level : but he thought there must be an error in the
statement. It would allow only 12 feet for the embankment of
a single line of 4 feet 9 inches gauge. He had been tr^-ing to
reduce the expenditure on railways, and he had found that a 15-feet
base for an embankment was too small. On the other hand, cut-
tings with a base of 32 feet seemed extravagant. On first-class
railways in England the cuttings were about 30 feet, and some-
times only 28 feet. He could not understand why a cutting should
require a width of 32 feet, and an embankment only 24 feet. The
permanent way of the Pennsylvania railroad was thought to be
unusually strong, and about the best in America ; but, compared
with an English line, it was rather weak. Its strength was due
to the great number of sleepers, which were placed about 2 feet
apart. Timber was probably very cheap in America, and it suited
the authorities to use a number of sleepers. The system would
not answer for England, for sleepers were perishable, and it

102 THE PENNSYLVANIA rxAILEOAD.

was better to have a smaller number of them and a heavier-
rail. ' Shimming ' appeared to consist in drawing spikes and
putting a loose packing under the rail for repairs during
frost; but he did not understand why it should be necessary,
because, if the road was in tolerably good order before the frost,
the sleepers ought to be set so hard in the ground that there
could be no subsidence. On the other hand, if the ' shimming '
was a customary process, he thought the spikes, from constant
drawing, would soon work loose, and the road cease to be a good
one. Dog-spikes were first introduced in this country with the
Vignoles rails, but they had long since been abandoned as an
inferior mode of fastening the permanent way. With regard to
the general cost of construction, seven years ago, when it was
found that railways cost so much and that dividends were falling,
there was a great demand for light railways. About that time
a clause was inserted in an Act of Parliament for the purpose
of permitting the Board of Trade to sanction railways of a
lighter description than those in ordinary use. After the Act had
passed, it fell to his lot to construct two such railways. One of
these was the Ilfracombe line, the gradients of which were heavy.
It had been sanctioned in the previous year, but the cost seemed
likely to be so great that, after the Act had been obtained, the
promoters went to Parliament a second time, as the only way of
getting the line constructed appeared to be by adopting the light
system. He took the precaution to go to the Board of Trade
in the first instance to ask about the permanent way, and was told
b}' one of the principal inspectors that the Board would pro-
bably not be inclined to pass a less weight of rail than 60 lbs. per
yard. Acting upon that, the construction of the railway was pro-
ceeded with. A steciD hill interposed between the sea and the main
system, over which the line had to be carried. There was one
gradient of 1 in 40 for 3^ miles on one side of the hill, and
another of about 1 in 36 for the 2 J miles on the other side. The
curves were of 15 chains radius, one or two of 14 chains, and two,
not on a steep gradient, of about 7j chains. The permanent way
was laid with 60-lb. rails, with the sleepers, a yard apart, 9 inches
by 4^ inches. Great economy was exercised, and the works were
let, including stations, for £90,000; but, when tlie Government
Inspectors were consulted, the requirements with regard to sta-
tions were so increased, that the idea of a light railway soon
disappeared. The signals, stations, and everything connected with
the railway were as costly as though it had been a heavy one ;
the only thing light was the permanent way, and in order to get

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 103

that, restrictions were placed on the weight of the engines and on
the speed. The result of this Ilfracombo experience indicated that
a light railway in a hilly country was a mistake. The engines were
ispeeially built to suit the gradients : they had six wheels coupled,
and weighed 24 tons. The wheels were 4 feet 6 inches in diameter,
and the cylinders 16 inches diameter with a length of stroke of 20
inches. The greatest load that an engine was capable of taking
up the incline was 84 tons ; but it usually worked with a load
of 75 tons. Soon after the line was opened, it was found that
the permanent way was not suitable for engines of that class,
which bui'st the rails out of gauge on the sharp curves, so that
they had to be secured by ties. He thought that light rail-
ways, in this country, were only available where the gradients
were easy and where light engines could be used. The easy rail-
ways in England were mostly made, so that he thought there
was no great prospect for such projects. The cost of the Ilfra-
combe line, including land and all other expenses, was £135,000,
being at the rate of £9,000 per mile. The other light line
he had constructed was the Sidmouth railway, where the works
were lighter and the gradients less steep, namely, 1 in 45 and 1
in 54. There was the same kind of permanent way, the same
class of engine, and with the same results to the rails. The engine
was apparently too stiff for the permanent way, although it was
secured with better fastenings than appeared to be in use on the
American lines. The South-Western Eailway Company, who worked
the Ilfracombe line, were persuaded to substitute the 75-lb. doiible-
headed rail for the light permanent way on the two steep gradients
above mentioned, and the result was satisfactory. He felt certain
that if light rails had been adopted on the heavy inclines, consi-
dering the break power required, they would have stood but a
short time. In the case of straight lines or easy curves, an engine
did not do much damage to the permanent way ; but with sharp
curves and heavy inclines he was sure the system would not
answer. One or two points were omitted in the Paper which would
have helped to demonstrate the comparative cost of American and
English railways. It was stated that the Pennsylvania railroad cost
£11,250 per mile including rolling stock ; but that sum ought to
be divided under three heads, works and stations, land, and rolling
stock, for the purpose of comparison. In America many items did
not appear at all. There was no fencing ; there did not seem to
bo any road bridges, level-crossing gates, or signals ; the terminal
stations were few ; and last, but not least, there was no Govern-
ment inspection. An American railway seemed to consist of the

104 THE PENNSYLVANIA EAILROAD.

line only. If there were a Government inspection, it was very
different from what it was in England. Government inspectors
were very courteous in their dealings ; but he thought they
were a little hard on the smaller class of railways. Ko expense
should be spared in providing the most comjilete and the most
perfect system of signalling which could be devised for main
through lines like the London and North - Western ; but in
the case of branch railways, where every train stopped at every
station, an elaborate system of signalling, to prevent one engine
coming into collision with itself, seemed out of place. Bogie
engines ofiered some advantage, and he should have been glad
if they had been tried on the Ilfracombe line, or if radial axles
had been introduced. The present engine ran round a 7i-chain
curve on the heavy permanent way without doing any damage ;
and he believed that the mischief was due to the lightness of the
road and the insufficient fastening, which a light rail rendered
unavoidable.

Mr. Price Williams said this Paper supplemented two very
valuable communications by the late Mr. Zerah Colburn, read
before the Institution, some years ago. The classification of
locomotives had then been treated most exhaustively, and not
only had the tyjjes been given, but also the performances of
different engines. Having regard to those statements and figures,
he could not understand the assertion in the Paper about the
evaporative power of an engine on the Altoona incline. The
highest performance of one of the London and North-AVestern
express engines with the Holj'head train was to evaporate 2,500
gallons in two hours. Mr. Colburn first drew attention to the
subject of cast-iron wheels, and gave several striking results of
their use. He expected in the interval that had elapsed some
further valuable information and data would have been afforded.
The Authors had, he considered, abundant materials for most
important additions. Table I. appeared to him rather mean-
ingless. It stated that the working expenses in the year 1873
amounted to 62 per cent, of the gross earnings, as compared
with 53 per cent, for the United Kingdom according to the Board
of Trade returns. The striking disturbances in the working ex-
penses over the period covered by the Table did not seem to
have been noticed. Thus in 1861 they were 50 per cent. ; in
1862, 53 per cent.; in 1863, 57 per cent.; in 1864, 72 per cent.;
in 1865, 76 per cent. ; in 1866 they amounted to 77 per cent. ;
in 1867, 74 per cent. ; in 1868, 69 per cent. ; in 1869, 71 per cent. ;
in 1870, 64 per cent. ; and then there was a gradual descent to

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 105

62 per cent. No allusion was made to the causes which had
produced these largo working expenses ; nor were there any
particulars of the mileage of new lines opened in the different
years. "What alone was given was the train mileage, which had
increased from 4,000,000 to 16,000,000 in thirteen years; hut no
reference was made to the traffic per mile. If the passenger traffic
and the goods traffic had been stated, a better means of comparison
would have been afforded. Allusion had been made to a traffic
diagram which he exhibited during the discussion last session
upon Mr. Eapier's Paper on " The Fixed Signals of Railways ;"^ but
its meaning did not appear to have been quite understood. It was
not exhibited as a new invention. Mr. Harrison, the President, had
stated that, years ago, he had been in the habit of using them, and
Mr. Price "Williams had employed them for twenty years. The
diagram was produced merely to illustrate the particular point to
which he was then referring, namely, the growing necessity for
separating slow from fast traffic on the principal main lines of
railway in this country.

Dr. Pole thought it would be interesting to know something
more in detail of the permanent way arrangements on the American
lines. The flat-bottomed or Vignoles rail, universally adopted
there, was now fast superseding other forms, and was largely in
use in every country except Great Britain. He had lately been over
some portion of the district of the Chemin du Fer du Nord, in France,
and found that all relaying was now done with that form of
rail. Hence it was desirable to know the results of American ex-
perience with it, particularly as to the fastenings. The usual
fastening was the simple dog-spike, but as this in soft wood
sleepers was not so secure as could be wished, being liable to
draw, it was often customary to use fang-bolts in addition,
which were troublesome things. He had found that the French,
instead of dog-spikes, were using wood screws, which answered
very well, and rendered the addition of fang-bolts unnecessary.
His attention had been directed to the great holding power of
wood screws, some years ago, when he was on the Iron Armour
Plate Committee. He had noticed, at Cherbourg, that the French
fastened their armour plates to the timber ships by large wood
screws, instead of by bolts and nuts as in England, and he
obtained from the Admiralty permission to erect at Shoeburj-ness
an experimental target on this principle. It was tested by being
fired at with heavy ordnance, when the holding power of the wood

' Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. xxxviii., pp. 231-237.

106 THE PENNSYLVANIA KAILEOAD.

isurews proved very remarkable ; for after the target was smashed
to pieces, many of them were found still holding fragments of
plate to the corresponding fragments of timber. The wood screws,
therefore, seemed to him so good a fastening that he had adopted
them for some flat-bottomed rails he was laying down, adhering
as nearly as possible to the French model. The holding power had
been tried and was found to be much greater than that of spikes
of much larger size, even when the latter were newly driven,
and held best. The wood screw was hj no means a new fastening,
bvit it was little used, not so much as he thought it ought to
be. Its expense was not greater than that of the dog-spike, for
although it cost more per ton, this was compensated for by its
being lighter. He had taken some pains to inquire whether any
objection had been found to it, and the only one he could hear of
was the difSculty of preventing the platelayers from driving the
screw in with a hammer, to save time, when the inspector's back
was turned ; that, however, he hardly considered an insuperable
objection. With such a fastening, the flat-bottomed rail, on cross
sleepers, and with suspended fish joints, formed a very good road,
and of great simplicity, both for laying and maintenance.

Eeverting to the subject of the cast-iron wheels, which was one
of great interest, he conceived there must be something in the
quality of cast iron, as used in America, not known in this country.
Messrs. Fox had mentioned a strength much higher than was
usual here ; and he believed their statement was corroborated by
other facts. He had had occasion, when compiling some data on
iron, to refer to a remarkable series of American experiments on
cast iron as used for guns, and which were published in full detail
by the American Government in 1856.^ The tenacity in these was
found in some cases to be upwards of 15 tons, and in one case as
high as 20 tons ; this being obtained, not only by the intrinsic
quality of the metal, but also by its peculiar treatment in the
founding.- Some progress was being made in England in the
improvement of cast iron. It had lately come to his knowledge,
that a firm in the Midland Counties were undertaking the manu-
facture of large articles in malleable cast iron, a material long
known as of much value from its toughness, but the use of which
had been hitherto confined to small Birmingham hardware. Still,

' Vide " Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of
Metals for Cannon." By Officers of the Ordnance Department, U.S. Army. 4to.
Plates. Philadelphia, 1856.

2 Vide "Iron as a Material of Construction." By William Pole, F.E.S.
London, Spon, 1872, pp. 79, 80,

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 107

however, this would not beai- chilliug, and therefore it lacked one
important requisite for railway wheels. Great Britain ought not
to remain behind America in this matter, and it would, he con-
ceived, be well worth while for enterprising ironfounders to
direct their attention to the subject, and, if necessary, to procure
samples of American pig iron for trial, and to imitate the foundry
manipulation there adopted.

With regard to steel, it had been stated that one of the tests
api^lied in America was to heat the plates red-hot and then to dip
them in water, after which they must retain their softness and
malleability. But he would ask, was such a material really steel ?
He thought not. What was the definition of steel ? Chemically, no
doubt, the proportion of carbon might be a test; but for the prac-
tical worker in metals, the most common characteristic of steel
was its capability of hardening and tempering ; and if this nO'
longer existed, the metal was scarcely entitled to the name.
He believed that much of the metal now manufactured so largel}*
in this country by the Bessemer and other new processes, was
not true steel, but rather iron under another name. No doubt
it had advantages over ordinary iron, in its homogeneity, its
freedom from the flaws and defects often due to piling and weld-
ing, and so on, but still, when made in the mild ductile quality
now so much aimed at, it had not the salient metallurgical cha-
racteristics of hardness, tenacity, or temper, which were gene-
rally attributed to steel.

The views of railway authorities with respect to the Pullman
cars might differ, but he thought, that, at least, those who had
travelled in them might fairly bear testimony in their favour, as
compared with ordinary vehicles. Notwithstanding the vast
improvements in travelling facilities in the present day, it
must be admitted, that a long railway journey in an ordinary
English carriage still involved some discomfort from the com-
pulsory detention in such a confined space. In the Pullman
car the traveller might move about in spacious and comfortable
rooms, ventilated in bummer and warmed in winter, and provided
with many nameless conveniences that were out of the question in
ordinary railway conveyance. The motion, too, in such long car-
riages, was so much smoother, that (as had been his own ex-
perience) a business man might, if the road was in good order,
sit at a table and write without difficiilty. In fact, with these
cars, the traveller might fly through the country at 40 or 50
miles an hour almost as comfortably as if he were in his own
house, and this was surely a result worth attaining. He once-

108 THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD.

heard a clergyman say, in opposition to the modern stiff-backed
benches, that if it would induce people to come to church, he
would willingly give them cushioned arm-chairs ; and, on the
same principle, if people were to be induced to travel, it might
Slot be inexpedient to make travelling pleasant for them.

Mr. Walmsley Stanley observed that he had been engaged in
constructing railways in Sweden, a country somewhat similar to
America. The ordinary formation width of embankments was
18 feet. The lines were all single, built with flat-bottomed rails
placed 4 feet 8h inches apart. His experience was different from
Mr, Galbraith's with regard to railways of light construction.
Upon the railways he had constructed, some of which had been
opened for three years, flat-bottomed rails were used of 60 lbs.
weight, 4^ inches wide by 4^ inches deep, placed upon pine
sleepers 2^ feet apart from centre to centre, except at the joint,
where they were 2 feet from centre to centre, the joint being
suspended. There were gradients of 1 in 60 for 3 miles; and,
•owing to the difficulties of the country, the line was curved nearly
from end to end, the radius of the sharpest curve being 1 ,400 feet.
The engines weighed 30 tons, the pressure upon the front axle
being 11^ tons. There had been no cutting into the sleeper and
no drawing of spikes, although the traffic had been heavy; and
yet only 1 per cent, per annum was due to renewals, while the
working expenses had not exceeded 43 per cent. The lines were
all under the supervision of Government inspectors, who were,
if anything, more strict than in England. The construction
would well bear comparison with that of the best lines in this
country, and the rolling stock was, on the whole, superior. Dog-
spikes, to attach the rails to the sleepers, were universally used,
and suspended joints. On the States lines a solid joint w^as fij.-st
tried, the rail lying on a flat bed plate over the centre of the
sleeper, but this had been abandoned, owing to the damage caused
to the ends of the rails. An objection to the screw, to which refer-
ence had been made b}'^ Dr. Pole, was, that it was difficult to get
out. The dog-spike could be quickly withdrawn and driven in
again at the same place from whence it was taken out, and it
would hold the rail almost with the same tightness as before. A
portion of the sleeper must be destroyed when the screw was
used ; and in many cases it would be necessary to drive in the
screw to save time in case of accident ; and although it might
make a good road in the beginning, after a few years it would be
difficult to adjust. Shimming, or packing with wood wedges, was
absolutely necessary in very cold countries, where the road froze

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 109

4 or 5 feet deep in clayey spots and in ill-drained rock cut-
tings. On such occasions the ground rose several inches in hum-
mocks, and then the choice lay only between cutting down the
sleepers on such hummocks, or packing the rails for a distance on
each side. Good deep coarse ballasting was absolutely necessary
in such places, but where there were alternate thaws and frosts
packing became necessary even with the best ballast.

Mr. Phipps said that cast-iron wheels had been alluded to in
almost every aspect except that of safety. In this country, during
a severe frost, there were numerous instances of breakage of
wheels ; and it was worth while to consider in what respect cast
iron was less likely to break under such circumstances than
wrought iron. Cast iron was usually regarded as a substance
exceedingly brittle, notwithstanding that it was so much more
extensible than wrought iron. The tires of existing wheels were
shrunk-on often almost to the verge of breaking, it being merel}'
by the judgment of the workman whether they were sufficiently
tight ; and, supposing a certain amount of heat to pass at any
time into the boss of a wheel from the heating of an axle the
spokes woiild expand, and induce rupture of the tire. With a cast-
iron wheel made of one piece there was no shrinking-on of the tire,.
and there was greater extensibility of the iron — elements which
tended to the prevention of accidents.

Mr. Shelford had listened with great interest to the remarks
of Mr. Galbraith and Dr. Pole on the question of the permanent
way, as he was desirous of making light railways. He believed
a committee of the American Society of Civil Engineers had
reported during the present year upon the manufacture, form,
and endurance of the Yignoles rail, and one of the conclusions
arrived at was that the best form was a base of 4 inches and
a depth of 4.V inches, with a web of not less than ^ inch thick.
These dimensions nearly corresponded with those given in the
Paper. The weight of such rails would be about 62 lbs. or
65 lbs. per yard, and he believed they were fastened by dog-
spikes to hard wooden sleepers. Very much the same form was,
he understood, used on the State railways in Germany, where
the rail had a depth of 4.^ inches and a base of 3J inches, and
weighed 62 lbs. per yard. It was fastened to hard wood sleepers
by dog-spikes, and at each side of the joint there was a rolled
iron sole-plate through w^hich the dog-spike passed. In this
country such a method would be impracticable, because the sleepers
were of soft wood. Pie had laid a Yignoles rail, which had lasted
in constant use for eight years, and now carried fifty trains a day. It

110 THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD.

had a base of 5^ inches, a depth of 4^ inches, weighed 75 lbs. per
yard, and had stood very well. If the base was reduced much below
that it was impossible on soft sleepers to get a good fastening, or
one which would pass a Board of Trade inspector. That was a
matter of interest at the present time, since a considerable and
perhaps increasing mileage of branch lines wa.s being constructed
upon working arrangements with the parent companies. It was
the interest of the constructing company to make as light a road as
possible, while it was the interest of the parent company to get a
good and perhaps expensive road. His experience of the working
•of the first light railway constructed in Wales, under the Act
referred to, coincided with that of Mr. Galbraith.

Mr. "VV". B. Lewis asked what was the width of the base of the
rail on the Ilfracombe line. He had been engaged in laying a
length of 15 miles of railway in Ireland, with rails 5^ inches wide
iit the base, and these carried heavy engines without difficulty.

Mr. Galbraith said the base was 4 inches and the height
4h inches. He had no hesitation in saying that a base of 4 inches
was too small.

Mr. J. Fernie said he had been over the Pennsylvania railroad,
and had witnessed many experiments on the steel to which reference
was made, some specimens of which he exhibited. He had also
seen chilled wheels cast at one of the best known works established
for that purpose in Philadelphia. He was not only shown the
process of manufacture, but also the pig iron used, and he thought
the observation made by Dr. Pole was correct — that the high
quality of the steel and of the iron castings in America was owing
to the excellent pig iron employed, as well as to the great care
■exercised in casting. The following statement, of the pig iron
made in the United States during the year 1872, was extracted
from the Statistical Eeport of the National Association of the
iron manufactui'ers of the United States : —

Tons.
Pig iron made with ooke and coal .... 712,500

Do. do. anthracite 1,197,050

Do. do. charcoal 478,750

Tutal 2,388,200

Pig iron imported from Great Britain in 1872 . 190,000

From that return it would be seen that less than one -third of
the quantity was manufactured with coke and coal, and this was
-equal in quality to the British iron imported, that about one-half
was made with anthracite, some of which ranged in price about ^5,

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. Ill

say 20s., per ton dearer, and that more than one-sixth was charcoal
iron of the best quality. He was not prepared with similar statistics
of the qualities of pig iron made in G reat Britain ; the total
manufacture, however, in 1872 was about 7,000,000 tons. No
d.oubt a large quantity of high-class pig iron was imported from
Sweden, while a considerable quantity of cold-blast iron and of
haematite iron of good quality was made and used in this kingdom.

In considering the quality of the iron manufactured in America,
reference ought to be made to the character of the fuel. Largo
quantities of anthracite were consumed in all branches of the
iron trade, and he had no idea of the purity and excellence of this
material until he had seen it in the great colliery districts on the
Philadelphia and Eeading, and the Lehigh Valley railroads. The
supply of this fuel was practically inexhaiistible, and it was used
not only for smelting iron, but also for puddling and reheating it.
He had likewise seen cast steel melted in crucibles with anthracite
coal instead of coke. This anthracite was won in large blocks,
and was very hard. In the colliery he examined it was raised
about 50 feet above the ground, and was passed through a series of
crushers, which broke it up to the different sizes required. While
passing from one crushing-machine to another it was carefully
examined, and all impurities picked out.

An English engineer, visiting the United States, thought it
extraordinary to see car wheels of cast iron. Contrasting the
English complicated wheel, with its wrought-iron centre of many
parts welded together, and a tire shrunk on tight, with the
simple American chilled wheel, he was induced to think the
Americans were in advance of this nation. From the humblest
wagon to the most sumptuous Pullman car, all were fitted with
the simple chilled wheel. On inquiring as to the manufacture
of these wheels, he found they were not made in ordinary foun-
dries, but in special manufactories. The moulding boxes were
of simple construction ; the outer rim and flange of the box con-
sisted of a heavy metal chill ; the other part of the pattern was
rammed up in sand, dried in a stove; and the metal— a mixture
of worn-out wheels, anthracite iron, and charcoal iron — was carefully
melted in an air-furnace, and poured into the mould. When the
metal was sufficiently set, the casting was taken to an annealing
oven, where it remained several days, and slowly cooled, after
which it was bored out, pressed on the axle without any key, and
was forthwith ready for use. These wheels were even employed
as the leading wheels of engines. Through the courtesy of the
late President of the Company, Mr. Edgar Thomson, he had gone

112

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILEOAD.

through the works at Altoona, and had witnessed the various opera-
tions connected with locomotive repairs and rebuilding, in which
there was nothing special, but the carriage department was excel-
lently arranged. At Altoona, he was particularly struck with the
manufacture of the boilers, and with the steel of which the fire-boxes
were made. He exhibited a specimen of boiler plate which had
been made red-hot, then dipped in cold water and bent round flat,
and it was without a flaw. Being so much pleased with the steel,
he visited the maker, Mr. Parkes, at Pittsburgh, who received him
most kindly, and he obtained a good deal of information from him.
Tlie steel was made of a mixture of chai'coal and anthracite iron,
and was cast in a plumbago crucible, two heats per day being
obtained. He had not been able to apply any delicate chemical or
mechanical tests to ascertain the quantity of carbon it contained,
or its tensile strength per square inch ; but he had, both with
Mr. "Worsdell at Altoona, and Mr. Parkes at Pittsburgh, tested it
severely by bending and re-bending, and by heating and cooling
it rapidly, and under all these changes it appeared perfectly
adapted for fire-boxes.^ For the purpose of this discussion he
had re-tested a piece : he had nicked each end with a file ; he
then hardened one end, and bent each end over till they broke ;
the result was that the hardened end broke a little sooner than
the other, but the difference in hardness was not perceptible
when tested by a file ; the centre-piece was afterwards bent quite
flat, and was without a flaw. The maker said that, after the plates
were rolled, they were dipped in a large vessel of cold water, and
if they came out uninjured they were good plates. Afterwards
the edges were sheared, and the plates were tested before being

Krupp Steel.*

American
Steel.f

Carbon, combinctl
Silicon.

1-18
0-33
none
0-02
trace
0-12
0-30
98-05

0-23
trace
none
0-05
none

99-72

Sulphur .
Phosphorus .
Man<;anese
Cobalt and nickel
Copper.

Iron, by dififerenec

100-00

• Vide "Metallurgy, Iron and Steel," by Dr. Percy, p. 837.

f From an analysis Mr. Siemens recently had made of a piece of this steel.

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 113

sent out as finished. Mr. Fernie had not seen steel of that par-
ticuLir quality in England. For the manufactl^l•o of ciitters, axes,
tajis, dies, and articles of that kind, the makers said they obtained
the best steel from Sheffield; but they manipulated it very cleverly,
and were able to send to this country tools with wliich the Sheffield
people had not yet been able to compete.

In his travels through the United States what he saw in regard
to mechanical engineering work was of the best kind. All ap-
peared to aim at perfection, and no expense was spared in arriving
at that result. Many revolutions in mechanical engineering had
been introduced into this countr}- from America, besides the Pullman
car and the fare of l\d. a mile, and ho believed there was still a good
deal to be learnt. The greatest facilities were affi)rded him for see-
ing everj'thing in connection with the mechanical and engineering
progress of the country, and he had invariably been received in the
kindest and most courteous manner by all American engineers.

Mr. Berkley observed, with regard to the Pullman car, that
he had no desire to interfere with the scheme projiounded for
promoting traffic, on a particular railway, by ofifering passengers
a palace car at lid. a mile; but there appeared to be an im-
pression that the railway company would not lose by the trans-
action. Now he wished to show, by facts and figures, that the
anticipations of a more general use of the Pullman cars were
not likely to be realised. An ordinary first-class carriage, which,
as usually made, was moderately comfortable, would accommodate
about as many as the Pullman car, namely, twenty-four pas-
sengers in comparison with twenty. It cost on an average
£650, while a Pullman car cost £3,000. It weighed 8^ tons
in comparison with 20 or 24r tons. He maintained that it
was better to provide the best possible accommodation for the
many at the least cost, and by the most scientific ajipliances, than
to provide special luxuries for the few at a great cost. When
in the I'nited States, eight j^ears ago, he was specially struck with
the fact that the railroads first made to meet the very limited
demands of American society, were being improved as the require-
ments increased. These improvements consisted in the introduction
of steel or heavier iron rails, of iron bridges instead of wooden
bridges, larger engines, better rolling stock, new and larger stations,
and the like. He had, therefore, hoped to learn something from the
Paper of the history of those improvements, especially in con-
nection with the Pennsylvania Central railroad, which had been
called the London and North-Western of America. He had looked
in vain for that kind of information. It should not be forgotten

[1874-75. N.S.] I

114 THE PENNSYLVANIA KAILEOAD.

that in England a comparatively small proportion of railways con-
sisted of single lines, while in America the proportion of single
lines was very great. He was surprised to find it stated that the
cost of the Pennsylvania railroad had only been £12,310 per mile
for the whole system, and £11,250 for the main line. On that
subject he had consulted the " Eeport of the Investigating Com-
mittee," appointed so lately as the 10th March in the present year,
with the concurrence of the directors (a circumstance that might
be commended to the notice of English railway companies), to
investigate the position of the company in eveiy respect. The
Committee had therefore the services of the directors and of the
whole of the staff in making their inquiries. Under the head
of " Cost of Main Line," ^ it was stated, " By referring to the
article on the cost of real estate, road, &c., you will find that your
main line, including the Philadelphia and Columbia railroad with

the present value of its equipment, real estate, &c stands

charged on your books at K48, 57 1,808." That really amounted ta
upwards of £27,000 a mile, instead of the cost given in the Paper.
He should have been much astonished if the result had been
otherwise, considering the accommodation afibrded, the many im-
provements introduced, and the summit to be ascended and de-
scended. It was difficult to imagine that such a line could have
cost less per mile than the average of the lines — most of them
single — throughout the country. The sum mentioned did not
include stores, but probably they should not be included in the
capital. The report presented a comparison extending over ten
years. As a similar comparison had been made in regard to English
railways by Mr. J. Thornhill Harrison, M. Inst. C.E.,- it would
be found particularly apposite and valuable.

On this subject the report stated : —

" 1, That with an increase of ^^-^^^o P^^ cent, of capital, there
was a gain in tons carried one mile of 229^%^^^ per cent., and a gain
in freight earnings of 210^%% per cent., while the rate of com-
pensation received for carrying one ton one mile was reduced from
^T^ cents to lyVoVo cents per ton per mile, and expenses from
ly/o cents to O^y^^, and the profit per ton only from 0-1%%- cents
to 0-^^^ cents per ton per mile ; thus showing that while the
charge for moving freight was reduced lyVoV cents per ton per
mile, the expense of doing the work was reduced Ix^^o cents per

- Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. xxix., p. 322 et seq.
' Vide "Report of the Investigating Committee," &c., p. 98.

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 115

ton per mile, and the profit was only brought down ttjoVott' ^^
one-third of a mill per mile per ton.

" 2. The passenger travel will not, of course, show such favour-
able results, as the outlay on the road was mainly to carry freight ;
but it shows, as between 1864 and 1873, that with an addition to
the capital of 59y*^5^°^ per cent., the passenger travel has increased
-^tW psr cent., and the cost of carrying one passenger one mile
from lyxny *o ^y^^ ; while the net earnings have decreased from
•^Tcnr to OtVu cents per mile." ^

It was also stated " that for every million dollars invested since
the year 18G3 there has been an increased annual profit of ^280,000,
taking your profit in 1873 as a basis."

A^"ith regard to the introduction into other countries of the Ame-
rican system of constructing railroads, that introduction would be
advantageous or disadvantageous according to the circumstances
of the case. There were some countries where it would be difficult
to make temporary lines, because the requisite materials could not
be readily obtained ; and there were demands upon the railways
that were not consistent with the working of such temporary lines.

Mr. E. A. CowPER considered it particularly desirable to have
all the fully-proved facts resulting from such large experience
as the Americans possessed ; as, for example, in the simple
matter of chilled cast-iron wheels. Something about them was
known here ; tens of thousands had been made and used,
but, for the most part, only under contractors' wagons or coal-
trucks, because they were considered dangerous. He believed they
were formerly dangerous even in the I'nitcd States, long after
they had been adopted for bogies both to engines and carriages.
But the Americans had given great attention to the process of
casting such wheels, and to the metal of which they were made,
and in this respect they had the advantage in being able to
choose first-class iron for the purpose, and iron that would chill
deeply. That was important; for some iron would not chill
deeply. Ho had been informed on good authority that iron made
from red haematite ore was not suitable for chilled wheels, but
that the iron must be from the brown haematite ore. Another im-
portant point was to arrange the best way of cooling the nave of
the wheel when cast. The nave, which was the heaviest part, was
surrounded by heated metal and sand. Ho had made a hole
through the bottom of the mould, to admit air, and removed the
core as soon as possible ; but that was scarcely satisfactory. The

' Vide " Report of the Investigating Committee," pp. 106 and 107.

I 2

116 THE PENNSYLVANIA EAILROAD.

usual plan was to divide the boss into four parts, and then to
clamp the parts with two hoops ; but this was a poor job. Further
information about the mode of cooling or annealing the chilled
cast-iron wheels would conduce to their introduction into this
country, if it could be shown that they might be used with safety.

With regard to steel boilers and the steel tires of driving wheels,
he had been pleased to hear the remarks of Mr. Worsdell, and
of one of the chief pioneers in the introduction of steel into
boilers, ships, and engines, Mr. Webb ; and he should have been
glad if the practical result had been disclosed of the use of steel
of mild or low quality in ships. It was not commonly known that
25 per cent, might be saved in the weight of a ship if built
throughout of mild steel that would not harden, and that would
not stand a greater strain than 30 tons per square inch ; biit such
was the fact. He knew of a ship built of puddled steel, in the early
times, when the proportion of carbon was irregular. After the
smiths had thinned down the corner of a plate they used to quench
it ; but this led to some of the corners drojiping off like fractured
glass, from the hardening produced by the quenching; and it was
found that the only way of preventing this was by the removal of
the water boshes. Now, however, with mild steel, having a per-
centage of less than 0*3 of carbon in it, a saving could be effected,
as before mentioned, of 25 per cent, of the weight of a ship. With
regard to the trial of steel, either made by the Bessemer process or
the Siemens process, he had designed a simple plan of obtaining a
better knowledge of the metal than by breaking it, namely, by
filing. Having heated and quenched a set of samples of steel, he
took three common hard saw-files, and lowered the temper of one
to a straw temper and of another to a blue temper, and tried the
two sets of samples, and it was astonishing to find how this ex-
tended the power of examining steel. Hard-drawn pianoforte
wire would often stand a tension of 75 tons per square inch ; and
he had made some very hard, that endured 130 tons, but that was
too hard for use. He should like to inquire whether in cast-iron
valves slight recesses were made in the under side or face of the
valves to hai'bour steam. This, he believed, was important, and
was said to result in an improvement in the working of slide
valves.

Mr. C. D. Fox, in reply upon the discussion, said no one could
feel more strongly than himself the importance of basing all Papers
brought before the Institution on facts. To that end the Company
had furnished him with special reports by its chief officers, and
upon the figures contained in those reports the Paper was based,

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 117

SO far as related to the Pennsylvania railroad. The general infor-
mation was the result of five separate visits to the United States.
He had purposely slurred over the question of cast-iron wheels, and
other matters, to which reference had been made, because they had
been thoroughly discussed on former occasions ; and he tried to lay
stress on points not then dwelt upon. One of these, the rapid ex-
tension of the railway system of the United States, was unparal-
leled in the history of railways, and might well be discussed both
in regard to cost and general results. The committee of share-
holders, whose report had been cited, stated a distinct opinion,
that the western extension of railroads had reached a limit so far as
it was dependent upon the shipment of grain to Europe ; and it
was an interesting question how to contrive to bring manufac-
turers to the grain merchants, so that they might live upon one
another. Another point was the gradual consolidation going on
in America, by which all the great routes, east and west, were
getting into the hands of three or four of the larger companies.
Another was the use of heavy rolling loads on a light permanent
wa}-. While English engineers were trying to reduce the dead
weight, the Americans, by the introduction of the Pullman car
and other expedients, had gone in an opposite direction. He
thought sufficient consideration had not been given to the bogie
truck, the effect of which upon railway construction was greater
than might at first sight appear. It was a beautiful contrivance,
for rough roads and sharp curves, that might be studied with
advantage. Many minds in this country were busy upon the
question of central coupling as against side buffers, and numerous
inventions in connection with it were brought forward, some of
which he found, on reference to the " American Mechanical Dic-
tionary," were old affairs. He had been desirous of hearing some-
thing |said on the American practice of so arranging the cross
beams on bridges as to bring cross strains on to the top members.
This was unusual in England, and he had exhibited a diagram
(Plate 4) of a bridge which had been designed in America to meet
the evil. In regard to the general cost of railway construction, and
to the statements of the Investigating Committee, it should be
remembered that the Pennsylvania Eailroad Company was a body
much resembling the octopus, having many arms, which it was
difficult to divide from the head. Its own line was 355 miles in
length, with 82 miles of branches distinctly connected with the
main line ; but it controlled 5,9;53 miles. He had analysed the cost
of the main line and its branches, and the figures given in the
Paper would, he believed, be found closely approximate. The Com-

118 THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD.

pany, contrary to general practice both in England and America,
had for many years resolutely refrained from adding to the capital
account. It appeared from the report that, on a re-valuation of
the land, works and rolling stock, not only had the two last named
cost a great deal more than was indicated in the Capital Account,
but that the land was worth three times its original cost. The
result was that the railway cost £8,904,830, and was now worth
£17,306,300; showing an increase of value of 94 per cent, on the
capital expenditure. He had not been able to ascertain the number
of miles opened annually. The total expenditure on railways in the
United Kingdom in 1873 was 3s. l^d. per train mile; that on
the Pennsylvania railroad during the same period was 3s. 6^d. ;
and in Sweden, during the latest year given — viz., 1870 — it varied,
according to Mr. Michael Longridge, from 2s. 8d. to 2s. 4cZ. The
Swedish lines, he thought, did not offer a fair comparison either
with English or American lines, and this was especially the case
with reference to the Gefle-Dala line. The cheap working of the
Festiniog line had been conclusively shown to arise from the
peculiar nature of the traffic. The Gefle-Dala afforded a parallel
case — the traffic being almost all downhill, and of a heavy class,
whilst in addition the fuel was obtainable at a small cost. The
policy of the Pennsylvania company was not changed, and all
improvements were still being made out of revenue. The
Committee of Investigation distinctly reported that they con-
sidered the Directors ought to paj' regularly a 10 per cent, divi-
dend, which had been hitherto done, and that a large sum
ought then to be set aside annually to improve the works. No
doubt many English companies would be glad to look at the matter
in the same light. A considerable portion of the Pennsylvania
system ran through a thinly-populated country, whilst the rates
for the through traffic were kept down by severe competition,
and these two facts might account to some extent for the high
working expenses. These, in 1873, might have been expected
to be abnormally high, and it spoke well for the management
of the Company that the opposite was the case. In England
they advanced from 49 per cent, in 1872 to 53 per cent, in 1873,
owing to exceptional causes; those same causes were operating
to a certain extent in America, and would not materially in-
terfere with a fair comparison. With regard to the work done
by the locomotives, the maximum cost per ton per mile was
Id., in 1865. In 1873 it was a little over ^d. The passenger
earnings were l^^d. per passenger per mile, and the expenses i%d.,
the net earning being Id. The goods earnings were ?(Z. per ton

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 119

]ier mile ; expenses, -^d. ; net earning, \d. In making comparisons
<)ver a series of years, regard must be had to the fluctnating value
of the dollar, which had varied from 1«. Q^d. in November 18G4,
to its present value, about 3s. Sd. The locomotives had not been
classed by Mr. Colburn ; and the classes which Mr. Fox had given
were not his own, but the company's, and represented the number
of types to which the locomotives had now been reduced.

A great deal had been made of the statement that a certain engine
liad evaporated 2,400 gallons of water in less than an hour, which
was no doubt an extraordinary quantity. He had referred to the
papers sent him by the Locomotive Superintendent, and found that
the quantity was correctly stated. He had looked into the matter,
with the kind assistance of Mr. William Adams, M. Inst. C.E., to
ascertain whether it was impossible or not. Taking a grate area of 17
superficial feet, cylinders 17 inches by 24 inches, wheels 61 inches
in diameter, pressure 140 lbs., 8 lbs. of water per pound of coal
Avould equal 3,000 lbs. of coal per hour, or 176 lbs. per square foot
of grate per hour, equal to 22 cubic feet of water per foot of grate.
That, of course, denoted an intense but not an impossible combustion.
Mr. Colburn had referred not unfrequently to a consumption of
100 lbs. of coal per mile, as against 45 lbs. or 55 lbs. in England.
The actual run of the engine was 27 miles. Taking it as only 26,
that would equal 92 gallons per mile, or 2 • 7 lbs. of water per revo-
lution of the driving wheel. The following figures woxxld show
that the performance spoken of was by no means impossible : —

Capacity of cylinders at 140 lbs. pressure, cutting off at f stroke

(15 inches).

227 X 15 X 4 X 62-4 ^ _ ,,
= 2 w lbs.

1728 X 179 (specific volume of 140 lbs. steam).
Mr. Worsdell, although he still thought the work impossible,
had sent an example of his own experience on the Pennsyl-
vania railroad which was quite as remarkable. The engine in
question was a ' mountain ' one, cylinders 18 inches by 22 inches ;
wheels, 4 feet 7 inches diameter ; total load, engine and tender,
60 tons, thirteen cars, 235 tons = 295 tons taken up the incline of
12 miles, with a maximum incline of 1 in 55, in fifty -nine minutes.
The coal used was 2,750 lbs., equal to 160 lbs. per square foot of
grate, or 229 lbs. per mile. This immense consumption was ex-
plained to be owing to the fierce exhaust and to the fact that much
unconsumed coal went up the chimney. The amount of Avater
evaporated was 1,620 gallons in the 12 miles. Five pounds of
Avater were used per pound of coal, and the pressure of stoam main-
tained in the cylinders was 112 lbs. A doubt had been expressed

120

THE PENNSYLVANIA KAILKOAD.

wlietlier the steel for the fire-boxes could be crucible steel. Mr.
Fox believed that almost, if not all, the steel used in America up
to within a short time was crucible, but that Bessemer steel was>
now being largely worked. The steel used for fire-boxes was
certainly not the same as that adopted for boilers; but the
difierence was a secret not easily obtainable. The cold-water
and bending test spoken of was certainly applied to fire-box steel
J inch thick. With regard to cast-iron wheels, there could be
no comparison between the qualities of English and American
cast iron, and a good deal of misapprehension had arisen from
that fact.

The reason for cast-iron wheels having been so successful in
America was to be found, partly in the quality of the iron, and
partly in the manufacture. Mr. Gunn, Assoc. Inst. C.E., had
laid on the table some specimens of American pig iron, the
analysis of which showed its high quality.^ One example was a

' The following analyses of American pig iron have been kindly communicateil
by Mr. Gunn, Assoc. Inst. C.E. : —

For Bessemer Steel.

Smelted with coke and bituminous coal.

Amifi/ brand. — Sulphur, minute trace.
Phosphorus . 0'154
Silicon . . . 3-485

For CRrciBLE Steel.
A cold-blast charcoal iron.

Belay.

Smelted with charcoal, and with blast

at 700^.

Moose Lal:e. — Sulphur

. 0-005

Carbon .

. 0-000

Phosphorus

. 0-116

Silicon .

. 1-329

-Sulphur .

. trace.

Carbon .

. . 0-283

Phosphorus

. . 0-027

Silicon .

. . 0-OH

Slag . .

. . 0-264

Iron . . .

. . 99-412

Smelted with charcoal.

Baccoo)i. — Sulphur . . 0-017

Phosphorus . 0-012

Silicon . . . 2-624

Warm-blast charcoal irons.

Bmilale.—Su\i)huT . 0 - 007 to 0 - 01[>

Phosphorus 1-08 „ 1-20

Silicon . 1-12 ,,1-33

Baleigh.—Sulphm . 0-004 „ 0-014

Phosphorus 0-07 ,,0-07

Silicon . 1-OG ,,0-93

Eagle, Longsivamp, Black Lalce, are all cold-blast charcoal irons of extraordinary
strength, made from superior ores, which ores are first roasted and then smelted.
A stalwart man using a heavy sledge-hammer will often grow weary wher»
trying to break a pig of cither of these irons. Two strong men have been seen
to take turns in hammering, and finally to give up iu despair. For locomotive
boiler plates, chilled rolls, and any purpose where great strength is needed, these
irons are very valuable.

Sali'sbuiij is known widely as a cold-blast charcoal iron of high character.
Iron can be furnished which has a tensile strength iu the pig of from 28,000 to
35,000 lbs. to the square inch.

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 121

piece of a ear wheel which had run 70,000 miles, and which, even
then, showed a tensile strength of 33,000 lbs. per square inch. Mv.
Starbuck, of Birkenhead, who had a large experience in tramway
cars, said he coiald never get English cast iron to stand, and that
he therefore used American wheels. Two or three processes of an-
nealing were adopted. In one of these, introduced by Giesse in
1859, the wheels were removed, whilst hot, from the moiild, and
so piled up in a cylindrical chamber, that the ' hubs ' or naves
formed a chimney, through which a blast of air, which could be
regulated by dampers, was passed, thus gradually cooling the
wheels from the centre and preventing the naves from shrinking
away from the rims, as might otherwise be the case. In another
process, adopted by Mowryin 1861, the wheels were built up in a
pit having double walls, with layers of charcoal between them, and
were exposed to moderate but protracted heat, and then allowed to
cool very gradually. In both these processes care was needed to
prevent the heat being such as to draw the chill, which had been
imparted in the mould, to the treads and flanges, and which pene-
trated to a depth of from § to ^ inch. To avoid this difficulty a
modification, by Moore in 18G5, removed the wheels from the
moulds while hot and placed them above one another in a cham-
ber, with rings between the tires so as to shut off the chilled
portion of the tire from the inner part of the wheel ; the naves
were then immersed in charcoal, and the tires in sand. The
charcoal slowly burned, gradually annealing the bosses of the
wheels, while the sand prevented the chill from being injured. In
the case of cast-iron driving wheels, dry steam was passed through
them while they were lying in the mould itself. He would direct
attention to some experiments recorded in the "Engineer" for
November 6th, 1874, showing the remarkable strength of American
cast-iron wheels. One wheel 2 feet 7 inches in diameter, when
subjected to a pressure applied to the rim in direct line with the
nave, with a bearing upon the rim of 5^ inches, required 110 tons
to break it. Another was first forced by a pressure of 134 tons on
to an axle ^ larger than the hole in the nave, was then taken off,
and bore a pressure of 178 tons, applied to the rim, as in the
former case, without fracture. One reason for using cast-iron
wheels in one place and steel tires in another was that the Ameri-
cans did not generally elevate the outer rail on curves, so that
the leading wheel of a bogie truck had a great deal to do ; besides,
the work of guiding was thrown entirely upon the bogie truck.
The consequence was that steel tires being soft, wore thin, and
became dangerous, whilst in cast-iron wheels the chill was so hard

122 ' THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD.

that they could not he turned; hy which also the expense of
turning-up was saved. A cast-iron wheel was also safer in cold
weather than a wrought-iron tire, being homogeneous and less
liable to snap. On the St. Petersburg and Moscow railway, and
on Canadian lines, cast-iron w^heels had stood a temperature 40°
below zero, in which wrought iron or steel would be liable to break.
Such wheels were very durable, having a life of 100,000 miles,
no authority putting it less than 75,000 miles. With driving-
wheels the case was different. The diameter was large ; the surface
of the tread must be soft and true ; and when it became untrue, it
must be capable of being turned up again. At the date of Mr.
Colburn's Paper chilled tires were in use, but they were now
generally abandoned, except for shunting engines, where the
driving wheel had to do some of the guiding. In that case, the
tire was fastened by a slight coning of the rim to the extent of
1 inch in oi inches and by rim bolts.

The extra width of cuttings was given because of the amount
of snow that collected at the bottom of the slopes. ' Shimming '
consisted in raising the rail by strips of wood on the top of the
sleeper, when the ground was frozen so hard that it could not be
moved. The first frost upset the track; then a thaw came, and
afterwards a frost again ; and the road got into such a lamentable
condition, that, but for shimming, nothing could be done with it
during the winter. If the shim was thick it was placed upon
the sleeper, and two spikes were driven through to secure it to
the sleeper, and separate spikes to secure the rail to the shim itself.
Shims were sometimes emploj^ed to take ' slacks ' out of the road
when it was not frozen. With reference to the weight of rails,
allusion had been made to difficulties which had arisen on the
Ilfracombe railway. He considered the fault lay, not with the
rail, but with the engine. Had a bogie truck been used, the rigid
wheel base been reduced, and the weights adjusted, the rail would
not have been damaged. He had adopted much lighter rails,
weighing only 40 lbs. to the yard, in Canada, where the frosts
were severe, and in Australia, and elsewhere, in connection with
sharp curves and steep gradients, and they answered well even
for heavy traffic, where the speeds were slow, and the rolling
loads did not exceed Bh tons per wheel. Dr. Pole had asked a
question as to fang-bolts. Formerly the general practice in Canada
was to have an insistent joint for fastening the rails ; but he
considered that insufficient, and therefore arranged for a fang-bolt
with an extra length of thread, so that shims could be used to
some extent ; but, although loosely fitted, the fang-nut soon rusted

THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. 123

up hard and fast, and it had to he abandoned. The chief en-
gineer of the Toronto, Grey, and Bruce railway, Mr. Wragge,
M. Inst. C.E., had now reverted to suspended joints, and only dog-
spikes were used. In this country wood screw^s were not only
expensive, but liable to be converted, by being diuven instead
of screwed into the sleeper, into inferior spikes. If screws were
to be used at all, it would be well to adopt the American three-
threaded screw, which was intended to be driven, turning round
in penetrating the timber. Such screws were largely used in the
United States for packing cases. Some surprise had been expressed
at the short time occupied in the change of gauge mentioned in
the Taper. His brother, Mr. Francis Fox, M. Inst. C.E., was in
America when it occurred, and the statement was taken from
official records. A similar operation was carried out on the Grand
Trunk railway in October last. At ten o'clock in the morning of
the 26th a length of 552 miles, or including sidings, 600 miles of
railway was cleared of traffic ; and by one o'clock on the follow-
ing morning the gauge was completely changed. Two thousand
men were employed. In Captain Tyler's report on the Erie rail-
w'ay some interesting statistics were given on this subject.^ In
conclusion, he hoped this discussion might aid in awakening in-
creased interest in the public works of the United States, and
that English engineers would be led to visit in greater numbers a
country where they would find their professional brethren not
only most courteous, but able and enterprising in the highest
degree.

-^o^

' Vide "Report on the Erie Eailway, and its Connections," \>. 27. Folio.
London, 1874,

[December

124 ELECTION OF MEMBERS.

December 1, 1874.

THOS. E. HAEEISON, President,

in the Chair.

And

December 8, 1874.

JOHN FEEDEKIC BATEMAN, Vice-President,

in the Chair.

The discussion upon the Paper, No. 1,332, on " The Pennsylvania
Eailroad ; with remarks on American Eailway Construction and
Management," by Messrs. Charles Douglas Fox and Francis FoXj
occupied the whole of these evenings.

The following candidates were balloted for and duly elected on
the 1st of December: — Egbert Dundas, Egbert Gordon, Francis
Baker Hanna, Alfred Eeid Clanny Harrison, Peter Alexander
Peterson, William Henry Thomas, and John Brown Young, as
Members ; Henry Charles Baggallay, Stud. Inst. C.E., Donald
Barlow Bain, Charles Spkuyt de Bay, Donald Stuart Baynes,
Lieut. James Brebner, Francis Eustace Burke, Stud. Inst. C.E.,
John Clark, George Fitz-rgy Cole, Alfred Davis, Edward Bau-
DOUiN Ellice-Clark, George Estall, George Lancelot Eyles,
Charles Eichard Fenwick, Stud. Inst. C.E., George Findlay,
William Gilchrist Gilchrist, Stud. Inst. C.E., Harry Daniel
Good, John Duncan Grant, William Cecil Gunn, Edmund Legh
Harris, Henry Beecroft Harvey, William Harvey, Lieut. Henry
Sidney Freeman Haynes, E.E., William Marshall Hew at, John
Hewson, William Edward Horn, Stud. Inst. C.E., Fletcher
James Ivens, Stud. Inst. C.E., George John Manders, William
Holt Martin, Kenneth William Alister Grant McAlpin, David
Edward McDonald, Vitale Domenicg de Michele, Lieut. John
Francis James Miller, B.S.C, Muncherjee Cawasjee Murzban,
William Ensor Parry, Thomas Peacock, Alfred Phillips, Alfred
CovENEY Priestley, John Eaavlijjs, Frederick Ewart Egbertson,
Frederick Smith, Harrison Veevers, and Samuel John Wilde, as
Associates.

ADMISSION OF STUDENTS. 125

It was" announced that the Council, acting under the provisions
of Sect. III., CI. 7, of the Bye-Laws, had transferred Thomas Ed-
ward DuNX, David Maur Hexdersox, Gabriel James Morrison,
MiDDLETox Rayxe, Hexry Sadleir Eidixgs, B.A., and William
Ridley, from the class of Associate to that of Member.

Also that the following Candidates, having been duly recom-
mended, had been admitted, under the provisions of Sect. IV.
of the Bye-Laws, as Students of the Institution : — John Baker,
William Towxsiiend Battex, Arthur Wilbraiiam Dillox Bell,
Henry Taylor Bovey, Herbert Dorxing, Charles William Freke
Farewell, Hexry Edmuxds Haddon, Hexry Thomas Hall, William
Harker, Matthew Wilsox Hervey, Hexry Burdox Hutchings,
Alfred Johx Ingram,^ George Arthur Jones, Robert Patrick
Tredexxick Logan, Walter Lucas Lyxde, John Charles Mackay,
Robert Valentine Milxe, Carl Erxest Moline, Arthur Spexce
Moss, Alfred Thomas Mullaly, Henry Peacey, Alexander David-
son Stevenson, Harry Tee, Joseph John Tylor, William Barton
Worthington, B. So., and Julius Dent Young.

126 THE NEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN.

December 15, 1874.

THOS. E. HAKEISON, President,
in the Chair.

No. 1,389. — "The New South Breakwater at Aberdeen."^ By
William Dyce Cay, M. Inst. C.E.

The New South Breakwater forms part of the scheme now being
carried out by the Aberdeen Harbour Commissioners, under the Act
of 1868, and was completed in the autumn of 1873. The break-
water shelters the entrance of the harbour from seas raised by
soiith-easterly gales ; and, combined with the proposed extension
of the North Pier, it will carry the mouth of the harbour seaward
into deeper water and increase its width.

In the original design, a solid wall of Portland-cement concrete
blocks was to have been founded on a bed excavated in the bottom
of the sea. Liquid concrete hearting was to have been introduced
into the upper portion of the work, and an apron of concrete blocks
was intended to have been laid along the toe of the breakwater,
where necessary, to protect the foundation.

In carrying out the works various methods for building with
concrete in a liquid condition, deposited in situ, were tried. The
results proving satisfactory, the original design was, to some extent,
departed from, and the deep-water portion was composed instead
as follows : The foundation, after the loose material had been
removed, was constructed of large bags of liquid concrete. On
this foundation the work was raised, with concrete blocks of from
9 tons to 24 tons each, to 1 foot above low water of ordinary neap
tides; from this level to the roadway, a height of 18 feet, the
structure was entirely of liquid concrete deposited in situ. The toe
of the work was protected by an apron formed of a row of bags,
each bag containing about 100 tons of concrete.

Concrete Foundations.

For the first 500 feet from the shore the foundation rests on
granite rock; then for about 100 feet on boulders and gravel;

' The discussion on this Paper was taken in conjunction with the succeeding

one.

THE NEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN. 127

and for the remainder of the distance on clay mixed with gravel,
covered with large stones.

Bags of concrete were adopted for the foundations, in the first
instance, on account of the difficulty of levelling the granite rock
below low water. They were continued for the remainder of
the breakwater, as the results proved successful, and the ground
was sufficiently solid to admit of their use, when protected by an
apron. The bags were deposited by iron skips or boxes, the greater
part by two skips, each holding 5^ tons of concrete, their inside
dimensions being 6 feet by 4 feet by 3^ feet deep (Plate 8, Figs.
11, 12, and 13). In the last year a skip of 16 tons capacity w^as
used, its dimensions inside being 9 feet by 6 feet by 6 feet (Figs. 8,
9, and 10). The bottoms of the skij)S open on hinges, the hook
which holds them being released by a trigger. In the larger skip
the closing of the doors, after the bag is deposited, is assisted
by counterbalance weights. The bag, of the same shape as the
skip but rather larger, is fitted into it and temporarily lashed at
the top, so that it lines the skip. It is then filled with liquid
concrete, the temporary lashings are removed, and the mouth of
the bag is sewn up. The skip, with its contents, is lowered by
a crane to the divers, and moved about, in obedience to their
signals, until close over the required position, when the trigger is
pulled by a rope from above, which releases the bottom of the skij)
and discharges the bag.

The foundations were rapidly laid in this manner, the ground
being cleared, in advance, of loose stones and sand, by divers ;
Avhile the divers working the skips gave information as to the
necessar}' depth of bags to lu'ing the foundation up to the proper
level, making allowance for the flattening-out of the bag w^hen
deposited. If the bag stood too high it was beaten wdth heavy
rammers while fresh ; or, when partially set, the top of the bag
was removed and the concrete was cut down to the required level.
Small holes in the surface were filled with bags deposited by hand.
The proportions of the concrete most suitable for this kind of
work are 1 of cement to 2^ of sand and 3^ of gravel.

Sea Staging (Plate 9).

This consisted of solid timber framework, supported on Oregon
pine masts (Figs. 14, 15, and 16), its upper surface being 30 feet
above H. W. 0. S. T. The masts rested on cast-iron shoes or
sole-plates, with sockets on the upper side for their reception ;
the shoes weighed llh cwt. each, and the soles were octagonal,
3 feet 8 inches across. When the bottom was of rock, a jiin.

128 THE NEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN.

2 inclies in diameter, with a collar about 6 inches from its lower
extremity, was inserted as far as the under side of the collar into
the end of the mast, which was then hooped, and a hole drilled in
the rock received the pin when the mast was erected. The masts
were 21 inches in diameter at a third from the butt, and their
finished length when in the staging of the outer part of the work
was 65 feet. Sixty-eight Oregon masts were used; their average,
cost delivered at Aberdeen was about £39 each, or £0 per load.

Dantzic masts were used for the shorter supports, twenty-four
in number, at the shore end; their diameter was 21 inches at
a fourth from the butt; they cost £30 10s. each, or £6 17s. 6d.
per load delivered at Aberdeen. The smaller end of the mast
rested on the shoe before described ; the butt was dressed to
a cylindrical form for a height of upwards of 4 feet, and was
suwnounted by a cast-iron cap weighing 32 cwt. The lower side
of the cap had a cast-iron socket, 4 feet deep, into which the cylin-
drical head of the mast fitted. The upper side was a flat table,
measuring 6 feet 10^ inches in the longitudinal direction of the
staging, and 6 feet 2 inches in the transverse direction ; the top
framework of the staging was bolted to this table, small flanges
being cast at the sides of the bed of the beams to give their
fastening additional security.

The masts were in pairs, 27 feet apart from centre to centre in
the transverse direction, each pair being 18 feet 1 inch distant
from the next in the longitudinal direction of the staging. The
superstructure was a framework of beams of pitch pine, bolted to the
top of the cap, and composed as follows : Two longitudinal girders,
one on each side of the staging, rested on the iron caps above the
centres of the masts ; each girder consisted of three pieces of pitch
pine, of 13 inches by 13 inches scantling, placed one on the top of
the other, with timber keys, 3 inches by 4 inches Avide, sunk in be-
tween each beam about 3 feet 4 inches apart. Wrought-iron bolts,
1 inch and 1^ inch in diameter, passing through the beams, made
the whole into a girder 13 inches by 3 feet 2 inches deep. A rail
weighing 56 lbs. to the yard, on which the cranes travelled, was
placed on the top of each longitudinal girder above a packing piece,
9 inches wide by 4 inches thick, covering the bolt heads. The
o-irders were in lengths of 36 feet 2 inches, each length thus passing
over two bays of the staging. The end of the girder at one side
was 18 feet 1 inch in advance of the end of the other girder, so
that the joints broke bond, and there was only one joint on each
transverse pair of piles. The end joints butted against one another
above the centre of a mast, and were spliced by covering pieces of

THE NEW SOUTH BREAKWATEK AT ABERDEEN. 129

timber, 7 feet by 13 inches by 6h inches, there being six pieces to
each joint, and bolts.

The transverse girders, one of which connected the two masts
of a pair, consisted each of three pitch-pine beams, 14 inches by
14 inches, which, when keyed and bolted together, formed a girder
14 inches broad by 3 feet 6 inches deep. They were fastened to
the iron caps, their bed being at the same level as the bed of the
longitudinal girders, and were secured to the longitudinal girders,
against which they butted, by both of them being bolted to short
logs placed vertically in the corners. For additional security the
staging was braced in the following manner : A horizontal wrought-
iron strut, composed of a central bar 3 inches in diameter, trussed
by four outer rods 1 inch in diameter, was placed between the two
masts of each pair in the transverse direction about the level of half
tide, and diagonal tie-rods 1^ inch in diameter extended from the
ends to the opposite caps. Wrought-iron anchors, of about 18 cwt.
each, were laid outside the staging, with the top of which they
were connected by chains at about every third pair of masts ; the
chains were long rods 1^ inch in diameter, with eyes at their ends,
shackled together. The top framework was further braced by two
horizontal transverse tie-rods, 1^ inch in diameter, at each trans-
verse beam ; diagonal horizontal tie-rods were also inserted between
the opposite ends of each adjoining pair of transverse beams in
those bays of the staging not in use for building, or in winter to
provide additional stiffness. To erect the staging, a hole was
excavated by the divers, about 2 feet deep, for the reception of the
shoe which was set by them. The mast, having previously been
dressed on shore to fit the shoe and the cap, was floated out and
heaved into a vertical position by the steam derrick crane at the
extremity of the staging ; its lower end being guided into the socket
of the shoe by the divers, and its upper end secured between spars
temporarily fixed to, and projecting from, the staging already
erected ; the cap and the upper framework of the staging were
then put on, and the tie-rods and bolts fixed. In this manner the
staging could be erected at the rate of one mast, equivalent to an
advance of 9 feet lineal of staging, in two days ; the largest amount
of work reported was 108 lineal feet of staging in four weeks.
As the width of the breakwater was 35 feet at the level of the road-
way, and the staging 27 feet between the centres of the masts, while
the centre lines of the breakwater and of the staging coincided, the
masts were all within the line of the work and were built into it.
This was a great security to the staging ; only as mucli of it being
needed in advance as was necessary to carry on the building.
[1874-75. N.S.] K

130 THE NEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN.

GeBerally in summer ten pairs of masts were in advance ; while in
the late autumn their erection was retarded or stopped, so that on
finishing work for the season not more than three or four pairs of
masts were left standing in the sea, and one or two of these were
built in at their feet by the lower courses of the breakwater.

Only 360 lineal feet of the upper framework of the staging,
including the iron caps, was provided, that in the rear being taken
down and used again in the front. The heads of the masts were
sawn off at the level of the roadway, aift!^ the superstructure was
removed. A short piece of staging, consisting of logs and posts
of pitch-pine, was erected on shore, at the same level as the top
of the sea staging, to receive the cranes in winter or during
stormy weather ; and the cranes were conveyed from the sea to
the shore staging on a carriage running on rails on the break-
water, the rails on the top of the carriage being at the same level
as the rails on the staging. The crane carriage had eight tra-
velling wheels, each of them actuated by double-purchase travelling
gearing worked by hand. The carriage weighed 33 tons, and the
crane, with its crab, 70 tons more, being a total of 103 tons. This
weight was easily moved in and out, each operation taking about
one hour. The solidity of the staging and its height and weight
gave confidence in its power to resist violent storms. The onl}'
risk was from its being run into by ships, but this was to some
extent obviated by the exhibition of lights at the end. No
accident happened either from ships or from the violence of the
sea.

Sea-staging Cranes (Plate 9).

There were two 2o-ton steam goliath travelling cranes on the
sea staging, with crab-ways overhanging on each side, thus giving
a total transverse travel of the centre of the load of 42 feet. The
25-ton steam crabs were made by Messrs. Stothert and Pitt,
of Bath, and each cost, with chains, blocks, lying shaft, and
sprocket wheels and chains for working the travelling gear of the
gantry, £500 delivered at Aberdeen. The gantry was of pitch
pine. Each crab- way consisted of pieces 15 inches by 15 inches,
keyed and bolted together, so as to form a girder 55 feet long
by 15 inches wide by 3 feet 9 inches deep. Each crane had ten
travelling wheels, and the entire cost, with the crab erected ready
for work, was about £1,340. A 3-ton steam derrick crane, with a
50-feet jib, made by Messrs. Butters Brothers, Glasgow, was em-
ployed for erecting the staging at the end. The cost of this crane
was £170 delivered at Aberdeen. It was erected on a carriage

THE XEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN. 131

■witli hand travelling geai', costing £100 ; the gauge of the wheels
Avas 27 feet, the same as that of the 25-ton cranes, there being only
two rails on the top of the staging.

Concrete-building ix Frames (Plate 8).

For a length of 363 feet, extending to low water of spring tides
and the outer edges of the rocky foreshore, the breakwater was
liuilt of liquid concrete deposited in situ, iu frames or cases (Figs.
1-7). The upper 18 feet of the remainder of the Ijreakwater,
-(.extending vertically from the level of 1 foot above low water of
neap tides to the roadway of the breakwater, was also constructed
in like manner.

A framework of posts was erected round the site of the building,
excepting at the end of the completed work, which formed one side
■of the case. The posts were provided with grooves, into which
panels Avere slid, extending from post to post. The bottom and
sides of the case were lined •with, jute bagging, and tie-rods, pass-
ing through the posts and from side to side, prevented the case
from being burst open b}^ the lateral pressure of the liquid
concrete. The heart of each post was a piece of Baltic fir, 20
feet long by 12 inches by 6 inches scantling ; the pieces of wood
forming the grooves were fixed to the larger sides, the outer
pieces being bolted through the hcai't piece, and the inner ones
being spiked. The panels were built up of short pieces of jilank,
2 feet long, placed vertically alongside one another, so as to
form a slab about 7 feet 9 inches by 2 feet by 3 inches ; and they
were backed by two planks, placed horizontallj^, about 7 feet
4 inches b}- 1 1 inches by 3 inches each ; the ends of the latter formed
the tongues which slid in the grooves in the sides of the posts.
The tie-rods were of wTought iron, ^ inch diameter, in convenient
lengths, connected by ^-inch shackles; the end of the tie-rod
passing through the post was a l;)olt 1 inch diameter, to which
washers and a nut were fastened outside the post. The jute
bagging was 39 inches wide, and weighed 29i oz. ; it cost 8c?.
per lineal yard, and could generally be used twice. The frame-
work was made of small pieces, easily portable by a few men,
to admit of the execution of the first 300 feet of the break-
water, as there was no crane commanding the work, the staging
not l)eing then erected. Where crane power is available, the
framework might be as quickly erected in large sections pre-
viously made up on shore. In this way the small outlay for
tie-rods passing through the work, and built in and lost, might bo
partly avoided.

K 2

132

THE NEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN.

In executing the concrete-building in situ above low-water level,
it was considered important to exclude the tide from the unset
concrete. To effect this the cases were arranged of such size that,
by commencing when the tide left the foundation of the piece, the
concrete could be filled in and raised in the case faster than the tide
i-ose, so that its surface was always above the level of the sea out-
side. The sides of the mass, when filled in, were sufficiently pro-
tected from the wash of the waves by the framework lined with
jute bagging ; and the weight and setting properties of the concrete
preserved it from damage by the percolation of water. In this way
the concrete was put in without being damaged by the sea water,
and it set as perfectly as on shore, becoming, in fact, harder than
the blocks made in the block-yard, owing to its surface being kept
constantly damp, and there being no loss of the moisture neces-
sary for the perfect setting of the cement. Each piece extended
completely across the breakwater, and was thus 37^ feet wide,
the breakwater being 35 feet wide at the top, with a batter on
each side of 1 in 8. The pieces were 18 feet deep; their length
varied from 8 feet to 31 feet, so that the weight of each ranged
from 335 tons to 1,300 tons. The following is a list of the pieces
executed in 1872 and 1873 : —

In the Year ending Sept. SOtli, 1872.
Lengths. Weights.

Feet.

Tons.

IGi

680

670

335

670

712

670

712

838

712

838

79G

796

670

796

712

838

670

In the Year ending Sept. 30tli, 1873.

Lengths. Weights.

Feet.

Tons.

838

754

670

838

964

1,257

1,006

1,299

1,00(1

30*

1,278

1,090

830

1,169

The great size of the pieces in 1873 was rendered possible by
incorporating a number of concrete blocks with the liquid concrete,
to the extent sometimes of one-fifth of the whole mass; the-

THE NEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN. 133

iiiachiuery not being sufficient to produce liquid concrete to fill
up so large a piece to high-water level in one tide. The use of
large pieces saved time as compared with small ones, as the diving
work was to some extent hindered while the concrete was being-
filled in.

When the frame at the outer end of the piece was removed, and
another piece added, a vertical joint was left between them. The
pieces did not adhere to one another at this joint ; and when the
roadway of the breakwater was washed clean by a storm, a fine
crack marked the position of the joint. These cracks remained
open for a year or so after the concrete was deposited, owing
probably to a minute settlement of the work. The Author is of
opinion that pieces about 16 feet long and 670 tons weight were
the best for this work, as in case of a slight settlement of the
foundations, short pieces would settle with it and maintain the
security aftbrded by their weight on the courses of blocks below
them ; while a longer piece, of say 30 feet, would be apt to bridge
over a settlement, and not bear on the blocks, which without the
pressure of its weight are liable to be shaken and shattered by the
sea. In the case of a small piece of the foundation having been
accidentally undermined by the divers about the close of a building
season, eight of the blocks in the upper course lying below the
liquid concrete at low- water level were cracked by the sea, and had
to be picked out as far as their hardness would permit, and built in
again solidly.

The panels at the end of the frame were planks 6 feet 6 inches
long by 1 1 inches by 3 inches, so that half of each post was buried
in the concrete, forming when taken out vertical grooves from the
top to the bottom of the piece. The concrete of the next piece
fitted into the grooves, and prevented lateral movement of one
without the adjoining piece. Thus the concrete top formed a
mass practically monolithic in the horizontal direction, while in
the vertical direction each piece had an advantageous power of
settlement or adjustment.

The expense of the framework was trifling, as the posts and
]ianels were used until worn out. That of the iron tie-rods was
about C)d. per cubic yard of concrete, and of the jute bagging about
2c/. It will be seen from the statement of the expenditure, at the
end of the Paper, that the concrete built in situ was cheaper than
the blocks manufactured and stored in, the yard, without including
the additional expense required for setting the latter in the
Avork.

These masses of concrete gave great security in the progress of

134 THE NEW SOUTH LREAK^YATKK AT ABERDEEN.

the work. Their construction was kept well up Avith the advance of
the foundations ; and as soon as a length of the work had received
its covering of concrete, it was safe from the effect of storms. The
framework was seldom injured hy the sea ; a piece was considered
practically secure if it had been in twenty-four hours before the
storm began. In the few cases of the framework being partially
swept off by the sea while the concrete was new, the damage was-
slight, as the destruction did not progress so fast as the hardening
of the concrete and its power to resist the sea. The proportions of
the concrete found best for this work, keeping in view the risks
from storms when new, were 1 of cement to 3 of sand and 4 of
gravel. Much of the work was, however, done in the middle
of the fine season with concrete of the ordinary proportions for
blocks, viz., 1 of cement to 4 of sand and 5 of gravel.

CoNCiiETE Apron (Plate 10).

An apron of concrete was placed along the sea or east side of the
foundations. Commencing where the rock ceased, at about 500 feet
from the shoj-e, it was carried round the head of the breakAvater
and returned along the harbour side for 110 feet. On the east
side the apron was of a substantial character, constructed of a roAv
of fifteen bags of concrete, each bag containing about 100 tons, to-
avoid risk of damage from undermining by the sea, which would
have injured the work in a manner difficult to repair.

The machinery for this was a box of pitch pine, capable of
holding 100 tons of concrete, supported at its ends on two brackets
projecting from the breakwater over the site on which the bag was
to be deposited (Figs. 17, 18, and 19). The bag, which was a little
larger than the inside of the box, was then fitted into it, and filled
with liquid concrete ; when full, the mouth or cloth lid of the bag-
was scAvn up, and the bottom of the box, which turned on two-
wrought-iron hinges on one side, was ojDened by pulling two-
triggers holding up the other. In this way the bag of concrete
w^as dropped into the site excavated for it, close to the toe of the
foundation of the breakwater. In shape the box was rectangular,
but slightly larger at the bottom than at the top, to allow of the
bag leaving it easily. Its average dimensions inside were 32 feet
1 inch by 8 feet 1 inch by 6 feet deep ; the sides consisted of top
and bottom pieces, 15 inches by 15 inches, and between them were
two pieces 13 inches by 13 inches, and one piece 13 inches by
16 inches. Wooden keys, 3 inches by 4 inches, were fitted trans-
versely between each piece, and the whole bolted together so as to-

THE KEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN. 135

form a timber girder G feet deep, hy 15 inches wide at the top and
bottom and 13 inches wide in the middle.

The bottom was a strong timber framework, consisting of two solid
timber girders along each side, 4 feet 8 inches deep, braced together
with diagonals and bolts, and with 4-inch planking laid trans-
versely on the top. The Aveight of the straps and pins of the two
wrought-iron hinges was 42 cwt., the pins being 4 inches in
diameter. The triggers snpj^orting the bottom at the opposite
side from the hinges were perpendicular to the side of the box.
The i^art of the trigger next the box was a hook formed of one
^-inch and fonr ;^-inch boiler plates riveted together; the hook
hung from a hinge pin, SA- inches in diameter, suspended by
wrought-iron straps bolted to the side of the box. The flattened
point of the hook caught and supported the bottom, the upper
beam of which, armed with a wrought-iron washer plate, rested on
the point. When in this position the point of the hook was ver-
tically under the axis of its hinge pin. The back of the hook was
prolonged into a triangular arm of boiler-plate web with top and
bottom angle irons, having an eye at the end : a chain, fixed in the
eye, when heaved up disengaged the point of the hooked part of
the trigger from the bottom of the box, and the bottom then fell
open. The triggers measured 3 feet 1^ inch from the centre of the
hinge pin to the bcjttom of the hook, and 8 feet 8 inches from
the same point to the end of the arm, and the weight of each
trigger was 13 cwt. One trigger w^ould have been better than two,
as there was a difficulty in discharging them simultaneously ; but
this would have necessitated a box with a much stronger bottom.
In working with the 100-ton hopper box the following pre-
caTitions were taken to avoid damage from storms : Brackets were
fixed to the top of the staging, or 30 feet above H. \V. 0. S. T.
On these the box was lashed immediately after the work was
done. The bottom and triggers were unhinged and removed, and
the working brackets were also taken away. At the close of the
season the sides of the liox were likewise removed to the block-
yard. 'J'he weight of the sides of the box was 1 7 tons, that of the
bottom 1 7 tons, but the whole was easily moved by the two 25-ton
staging cranes, one holding up each end. Two or three bags were
generally deposited in succession, and the work was carried on
night and day till finished, when the box and brackets were cleared
away and secured as described. On one occasion three 100-ton
bags were deposited in forty-seven hours, reckoning from the time
the bottom of the box was taken out to the work to the time it was
brought back to the shore. Before the workmen were practised iu

13G THE NEW SOUTH BKEAKWATER AT ABEEDEEN.

the use of the box some of the bags were dropped 2 or 3 feet short
of the toe of the work. In this case the intervening channel was
filled with small bags of concrete of 5 tons weight, deposited by a
skip. The large box was filled by the aid of smaller ones of wood,
liolding about 6 tons each, which were loaded under the mixers,
carried down to the box, and lifted into it by the cranes.

Head or Breakwater (Plate 10).

The extremity of the breakwater was finished with a semicircular
end, the diameter of the semicircle being the width of the break-
water, so that there was no projection on either side. The
foundations were protected beyond the end by a triple row of
16-ton bags of concrete, which were continued round the harbour
side for 110 feet, the 100-ton bags protecting the sea side. For
security, the concrete blocks were dovetailed into one another, and
the concrete cap was carried 4 feet lower than i;sual, or 22 feet
below the roadway. Above this Avas placed a tower, 20 feet high
(Figs. 22 and 23), of liquid concrete built in situ, of 1,040 tons, so as
to add weight to it ; and the tower is surmounted by a concrete
lighthouse 62^ feet high.

Diving.

The diving work was all executed with helmet apparatus
supplied by Messrs. Siebe and Gorman, of London. There were
six sets of the double apparatus, in which each air-jDump supplied
two divers, and two sets of single apparatus. In general twelve
divers were under water simultaneously out of six boats.

A copy of the following regulations was hung up in the divers'
hut: —

" I. Four hours to be a tide, provided it is occupied as under.
" II. Divers to dress in own time, and to be at ferry-boat land-
ing on breakwater 10 minutes before the time appointed for com-
mencing tide.

" III. Divers will be allowed an interval of 15 minutes during
a tide, and 1 5 minutes at end of tide for undressing, making the
working time 3^ hours.

" IV. Commencement of a tide to be reckoned from the time the
helmet is put on."

In the summer season four shifts of diving work were obtained
in a day, the first shift going down at 4 a.m., and the last shift
coming w]} at 8 r.M. The principal divers worked two shifts per day
aii'd one on Saturday, being eleven shifts per week, the pay for which
was" ()()S. They had no standiiig pay ; but received diving pay when
diving',, and when working out of the water the ordinary pay per hour

THE NEW SOUTH EREAKWATEll AT ABERDEEN. 137

given to other workmen of the trade to which they belonged. There
were thirty-two divers, thirty of whom were trained on the work,
and two came from other places. The occupation was popular
among the men, and they were anxious to work two shifts ])cr
day. The Author was informed that they enjoyed excellent health.
One man lost some weight in the course of the season. Begin-
ners were occasionally sick after being down, but they soon got
over the tendency.

The best boats for this work were carvel built, 25 feet long by
8 feet 9 inches broad, and 3 feet 9 inches deej). Two of them were
built on the work, and five were supplied by contract, at an ave-
rage cost, delivered complete, of £35. During work the divers were
generally arranged as follows : — Four excavated for and set the
shoes of the staging masts, four cleared the loose stones and mate-
rial from the site of the work, and four were engaged in excavating
the foundations and arranging the bags and blocks.

Concrete Blocks.

From the bag- work in the foundations up to 1 foot above low
water of neap tides, where building in liquid concrete in situ com-
menced, the work was composed of concrete blocks manufactured
in the block-yard. These blocks were all -1 feet high, and usually
G feet wide. At first they were of sizes varying in weight from
7^ to 18 tons; latterly the small blocks were mostly used for
incorporating among the liquid concrete, and the larger, from
iO.^ to 24 tons weight, for block building. The blocks for the head
of the breakwater were radiated and dovetailed into each other, a
semi-cylindrical projection cast on one fitting into a corresponding-
recess in the next. The weight of some of these blocks was 25
tons. The blocks were cast in wooden moulds in the usual manner,
and stacked by cranes in the block-yard to harden. They were
then taken down the incline on wagons to the staging cranes, by
which they were lowered to, and set by, the divers.

The block -yard cranes were a 25-ton steam goliath, a 15-ton
hand goliath, and a 20-ton hand over-head traveller on staging.
The steam crane was best for handling heavy weights ; and the
economy in working it more than paid for the additional first cost
of the steam power.

The proportions of the concrete in the blocks were 1 of cement
to 4 of sand and 5 of gravel ; large rough pieces of broken stone
were also incorporated. The most approved method of making
the blocks was to lay a timber platform alongside the single line
of rails through the yard under each crane, and on this to set the

138 THE NEW SOUTH BKEAKWATER AT ABEEDEEN.

moulds. The coucretc was shovelled into the nioiilds from ordinaiy
earth wagons, which, when emptied, were drawn out at the
opposite end of the yard. In this way the wagons circulated
without interfering with one another, and the men were well
dispersed over the work. About three thousand blocks were con-
structed.

CONCIIETE-JIAKING.

The concrete mixers of Mr. P. J. Messent, M. Inst. C.E., wei'e
employed. Four of them, to mix about ^ cubic yard, each at a
time, were arranged in a row and driven by an 8-HP. steam-
engine. The wagons, to receive the concrete, ran in below the
mixers, which were filled by hoppers from a platform above ; this
measuring platform communicated by an embankment at the same
level with the j^laces from which the materials were brought.
Each mixer turned out 12 cubic yards of concrete per hour, or
48 cubic yards for the four, when worked at full speed. They
were driven at the rate of about eighteen revolutions per minute ;
and twenty to twenty-four revolutions sufficed to mix the concrete
thoroughly.

The gravel was mostly granite, mainly from the beach at the
bay of Nigg, about ^ mile from the mixers, to which it was brought
on a tramway. Excellent sharp, clean sand was obtained at the
back of the works, from a quarr}^ excavated in the hill, at the
level of the mixers, with a working face of about 50 feet high.
The upper stratum of 12 to 18 feet consisted of terr of an unsuit-
able quality. The quarry-face was about 300 yards from the
mixers. Eresh water was obtained from a spring on the shore,
where it was collected in a pond and jDumped to the top of the hill
at the back of the work, whence it supplied the mixers and the
steam cranes in the yard and on the sea staging, by gravitation.

Cement.

Portland cement was used for the concrete ; the following is the
description of it in the last specification issued : —

" It is to be finely ground, and when sifted through a gauze
sieve having 900 holes to the square inch, at least 95 per cent, by
weight of the cement is to pass through Avithout rubbing. It is to
weigh not less than 115 lbs. per striked bushel, imperial measure,
filled from a spout or hojiper 18 inches above the mouth of the
bushel. Sample blocks are to be made of the cement in a metal
mould having a minimum area of 2J square inches ; these blocks
are to be immersed in water immediately after setting sufficientl}'
to allow of their being taken out of the mould, and are to remain

THE NEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN. 139

in the water uutil tested ; at the expiry of seven days after
gauging they are to be tested by tensile strain, and are to beai-
Avithout breaking a strain of GOO lbs. per block. The cement
at the time of delivery is to be in all respects ready for use, and
there are to be no cracks, or symptoms of ' blowing ' or heat in the
sample blocks."

The price, delivered alongside Torry pier in Aberdeen Harbour,
about f mile from the works, exclusive of harbour dues, averaged
•■>9s. 3d. per ton. When stored on the works it cost, including dues,
43s. per ton. About G,220 tons were used. Fifty briquettes were
made out of each cargo, immersed in water for seven days, and
tested for tensile strength by a steelyard constructed by Mr. P. Adie,
Assoc. Inst. C.E. The cement was delivered in sacks, holdiujr
2 CAvt. each, and shot out on the floors of well-ventilated sheds-'
with a capacity of about 1,000 tons.

rnoGitEss AND Cost.

Preparations for the work were begun in May 1869, in tht-
erection of buildings, and the foimation of the block-yard and
roads, railways, &c. In the financial year ending September 1870,
the manufacture of conciete blocks was begun, and the shore end
of the breakwater carried out 312 feet by concrete building in situ,
containing 6,760 cubic yards.

In the year 1871, the staging cranes were built, part of the sea
staging was erected, and the breakwater was advanced 137 feet,
containing 6,135 cubic yards of building.

This year's advance was represented b}- —

Cubic yards.
Coucrete deposited liquid in bags in the foundations . . . 572

„ „ „ frames above low-water level . . 4,047
„ blocks 91G

Total . . . G,135

In 1872 a length of 300^ feet, containing 17,449 cubic yards of
building, was completed, the largest progress being in June, when
in four weeks the breakwater was advanced 87 lineal feet, con-
taining 4,675 cubic yards. The work done this year was — •

Cubic yards.
Concrete deposited liquid in bags in the foundations . . . 1,572

» „ „ apron 58

,, „ „ frames above low-water level . 6,452
,, blocks (including those set amongst the liquid con-| n q^y
Crete deposited in frames^ / '

Total . . . 17,449

140 THE NEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN.

In the year ending September 1873, a fnrther length of 300^
feet, containing 19,809 cubic yards of building, was completed ;
the advance in four weeks in July being 84f lineal feet, containing
5,886 cubic yards.

The extent of work this year was —

Cubic yards.

Concrete deposited liquid in bags in the apron 686

„ ■„ „ „ foundations . . . 1,058
„ „' „ frames above low-wuter level . 5,497
„ blocks (including as before) 12,568

Total. . . . 19,809

The total length of the breakwater is 1,050 feet, which is 150
feet shorter than originally intended, the proposed length having
been 1,200 feet. This shortening was determined on from con-
siderations connected with the navigation at the entrance, and the
fear that the passage of vessels might be obstructed.

The materials in the work included —

CiTbic yards.
Concrete deposited liquid in bags in the foundations . . . 3,202

., „ „ apron 744

„ „ „ frames above low- water level . 23,356
„ blocks (including as before) 22,851

Total. . . . 50,153
The expenditure has been as follows : —

d. £. s. d.

Excavating foundations of breakwater . 3,834 14 7

Concrete deposited liquid in bags in"! 4 045 5 ■'

the foundations / '

Ditto ditto in apron, including cost of) ^ c-n iq o

plant j ^'^'^' ^* ^

Concrete blocks and block-making . . 14,839 6 7

Block-setting 3,335 13 7

Concrete deposited liquid in frames! ,0 o/,q /^ -

above low- water level . . . . / _|J , ,-. -q^ , q ^

Preparatory works 3,229 14 9

Buildings 1,727 12 11

Plant 12,925 11 8

Sea staging 10,291 19 7

Sea light 98 19 1

Sundiies and materials in store 2,009 16 1

£76,864 12 8
By receipts for cement, &c., sold 421 6 5

Total expenditure up to the 30th of September, 1873. £76,443 6 3

THE NEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN. 141

The estimate, prepared l\y the Author, as submitted to the
riihlic Works Loan Commissioners, was £78,842. This was for a
length of 1,200 feet, bnt the Author is of opinion that the remaining-
150 feet beyond the present length would have been executed for
the value of the plant, rails, cement, buildings, masts, iron, &c.,
which are for the most part to be used in another of the Aberdeen
Harbour works ; viz., the extension of the North Pier. He thus
considers the work to have been executed at about the estimated
cost.

The principal i:)ersons employed under the Author in carrying
out the work were, Mr. James Barron, Inspector and Superintendent
of the workmen ; Messrs. William Yuill, Assoc. Inst, C.E., Eobert
Aytoun, and George J. Clarke, Assistant Engineers.

The Harbour Commissioners, of whom the chairman was Mr.
William Leslie, Lord Provost of Aberdeen, contributed in a great
degree to the success of the financial results by their interest and
attention. They consulted Sir John Hawkshaw, Past-President
Inst. C.E., and Mr. James Abernethy, M. Inst. C.E.. on four occa-
sions, viz., as to the original design, as to whether the work should
be contracted for, on the proposed sea staging, and on the pro-
posed shortening of the length of the breakwater.

General Eemarks.

In conclusion, the Author may remark, that the concrete
blocks of 10 to 20 tons appeared to be the weak jooint in the
design. Had the foundation turned out to be of sand or soft material
their use must have been given up, as a slight yielding of the
foundations would take off the superincumbent weight from
the blocks, and they would be loosened and broken up by the
heavy seas which strike the work. The blocks composing the
part of a breakwater below low- water level should be from 100 to
200 tons weight each. This practice with concrete building in situ
above low water would, in case of a dislocation by weakness 'or
undermining of the foundations, enable each portion independently
to resist the sea. He is also of opinion that some, if not all the
blocks below low- water level, might with economy and advantage
be deposited in a liquid state in bags.

The Paper is illustrated by a series of drawings and diagrams,
from which Plates 8, 9, and 10 have been compiled.

142 THE SOUTH JETTY AT KUSTENDJIE.

No. 1,391. — " The Extension of tlie South Jett}' at Kustendjie,
Turkey." ^ By George Lentox Eoff,

This jetty, which had a length in 1870 (the year in which the
■extension was commenced) of 450 feet, was protected against
severe gales, by a mole of pierre-perdue and concrete blocks.

The design for the extension Avas governed by the following
points. The extension was to be regarded not as a loading
pier for vessels, but as a breakwater ; it had to be so constructed as
to avoid the necessity of lengthening the mole : and, during the
progress of the work, the existing traffic accommodation and
loading berths were to be interfered with as little as possible.
These considerations made large concrete blocks necessary, and
restricted the space upon which they could lie built to the last
50 yards in length of the jetty as then existing.

The design adopted was that of concrete blocks, weighing about
30 tons each, resting upon a base of pierre-jierdue ; the blocks
being placed so that each forms an integral portion of the cross
section of the work. They are in tiers of four blocks, lying
evenly one upon the other ; each leaning back upon the preceding
tier at an angle of 47° 45' with the horizon. The bottom blocks,
18 feet long, are at a depth of IG feet below the surface of the
water. All the blocks are 6 feet high and 5 feet wide. The toj")
-of the work is 11 feet above the water, and is 12 feet wide.

Three roads were laid upon that portion of the old jetty
which has been mentioned as affording the only sjiace available,
the blocks being moulded upon trollies on the two outer rows.
The trollies were 20 feet long. There was room for only twelve of
them, six upon each road.

The timber sides of the moulding boxes were formed of 2;^-inch
planks, strengthened, and were arranged that the sides could be
easily adapted to the four different lengths required. The T irons
for stiffening the sides, and the tie-rods for holding them together
at the top, were all separately and easily removable.

A travelling platform, standing a little higher than the top of
the moulding boxes, and just wide enough to fill the space be-
tween the two rows of blocks, occupied the middle road, opposite
the box to be filled. Upon this platform the concrete was mixed

' The discussion on this Paper was taken in conjunction with the preceding one.

THE SOUTH JETTY AT KUSTENDJIE. 143

by haml. It was not practicable to make more than one block
at a time.

Two trucks of broken stone were placed before, and one of sand
and one of cement behind, the platform ; the sand and stone being
passed by baskets into empty cement-casks, standing upon the
orlge of the platform, so as to ensure the use of regular quantities.
A gang of twenty-four Turks and Bulgarians could load the
material into trucks and mix one boxful per day. The stone for
the concrete was procured from the foundations of ancient build-
ings on the Company's propert}''. These foundations consisted of
small rubble limestone and Roman tiles, generally without mortar.
The stone was raised and broken by contract at a cost of 2s. per
cubic yard. Most of the sand was brought by vessels as ballast ;
but when a suitable supply failed for a time, it was procured from
the seashore. With strong, sharp sand the proportions used for
the blocks were o\ broken stone, 2\ sand, and 1 cement. With
the native sand, these quantities were altered to 5, 2, and 1.

Before any concrete was put into the box, the two lifting bolts,
by means of which the blocks were to be deposited, were so fixed
that the block, when lifted, would tilt over to the proper angle,
and hang in the position in which it was intended to lie. The
eye end was held in place by a small wooden box, which also kept
it clear of cement, and the cast washer by two pieces of twine
nailed to the side of the moulding box.

The lifting bolts were 2 inches in diameter, and 6 feet long.
The washers and nuts were built in, so that the bolts could be
unscrewed and withdrawn after the blocks were placed. The
bolts were of this length to allow for re-screwing in case of
damage to the thread by withdrawing; but after the first few
blocks were lowered, the expediency of tapering the bolts was
evident, and all forged in this 'wa,y were recovered without injurj'-
or difficulty. On the morning after the day on which the block
was made, the sides of the moulding box were removed, and fixed
on another trolly. In this way sides for three boxes only were
necessary.

^\'lien two or three days old the top of the block was roughly
dressed to a straight-edge, so that the one to be placed upon it
might rest fairly. The bolts were moved about a few times
to make them more easily removable when lowered ; and the
-^lioulder of the bolt, at the eye, was built round with cement to
prevent it bending while the block was being tilted. This cement
was knocked away when the block had been lifted. The blocks
were lowered when from twelve to fourteen days old.

144 THE SOUTH JETTY AT KUSTENDJIE.

The gantry, carrying a travelling winch, was of timber. The
piles, sills, and rail-bearers were of creosoted red pine, from Eng-
land ; and the uprights and braces of Transylvanian white pine,
the uprights being placed in pairs, unsquared, as the scantling was
small. The piles were driven until, being at least 6 feet in the
ground, they did not penetrate more than 2 inches under the blow
of a 12-cwt. monkey falling 12 feet. The piles were 12 feet apart,
and every third pile was made fast to an anchor. Four or five
bays were erected at a time, and the timbers were taken down
and carried forward as the work progressed.

The blocks were pulled forward as far as a traverse, at the end
of that part of the old jetty upon which they were built, by a
winch fixed underneath the traverse ; and thence to the gantry by
another winch placed upon the blocks already lowered. While the
second winch was pulling the block from the traverse to the
gantry, the first was employed in moving forward the remainder
of the row, to make room for the empty trolly behind. Before
the lowest block of each tier was deposited, stones of ^ to 1 cubic
foot were thrown over the bottom, and a diver arranged these so
that the block might have as true a bed as possible. Oolitic
limestone, procured from a quarry near the railway, 14 miles
distant from the harbour, was employed.

After roughly levelling the stones, a rail was let down and
passed along the face of the last tier, to ascertain that no stone
underneath the last bottom block projected so as to prevent the next
to be lowered from lying back properly in position. This done,
the diver piled up the stones to an iron set-square, which he placed
against the rail, the set-square being made to correspond with
the lower sides of the blocks. This ojieration generally occupied
a whole day.

The block, having meanwhile been brought over the spot on
which it was to be placed, was tilted up on edge by the act of
lifting, and as soon as it hung free the empty trolly was drawn
from under it. The beams and rails upon which it had stood were
then pulled back out of the way, the block was turned half round
so that its length was transverse to the direction of the jetty, and it
was lowered into position. When the sea was rough, the block
was steadied by allowing it to touch, and slide down, the face of
the last tier. An iron rod, having a forked end to fit the upper
edge of the block, was let down to both ends of it, to ascertain
that it lay level ; and the diver then packed its under side as
closely as possible with stones. This being done, the lifting bolts
were unscrewed and withdrawn, by means of a long rod (reaching

THE SOUTH JETTY AT KUSTENDJIE. 145

:aljove the surface) having at one end a clip, which was made fast
to the eye of the bolt, and at the other end a ring, through which
a bar was passed and turned round like a capstan. It occupied
one diver two days to properly level the base, and pack the bottom
block. The other three blocks which rested upon it, and with it
formed a tier, could generally be lowered in one day. Each tier
extended the work a distance of 7 feet.

Under the peculiar circumstances of the case, there was nothing
to be gained by employing more than one diver at a time. Ac-
cording to the terms of a convention with the Turkish government,
the work was spread over three years. Otherwise, even with the
limited space available for building the blocks, it could have been
completed in half the time.

At the commencement it was intended to lift the blocks by
means of two lewises ; but, although these were made 4 feet 6 inches
long, they split the blocks as soon as the full weight came upon
them. The bolts, nuts, and washers never gave any trouble, and,
Avith the exception of the failure of the lewises, no accident or
damage happened to men or material while the blocks were being
deposited.

The inclination adopted for the tiers was determined from expe-
riments with a model. It was just sufficient to bring the centre
of gravity of each block above the face of the block against which
it leaned, so as to prevent any tendency of the blocks to tip for-
ward during settlement.

The most troublesome part of the work was making the concrete
slope at the end of the old jetty, against which the first tier of
blocks was to rest. This could only be done solidly by lowering
unset concrete into a caisson. The sides of this were made of two
thicknesses of planking, the outer 2^ inches, the inner 1} inch
thick, with a layer of tarpaulin between. The caisson was finally
secured by driving piles formed of two rails riveted together, and
tipping stones on their sea face to a few feet above the water level.
The water was not pumped out, but the concrete was lowered in
hopper-bottomed boxes.

The topping of the blocks, which brings the jetty to a level of
1 1 feet above water, was done in lengths of four tiers, or 28 feet.
The plank casing was supported by struts fixed to walings, bolted
to the gantry piles. The concrete was mixed on the spot, and
thrown in. The proportions were 6^ broken stone, 2i sand,
1 cement, and stones from ^ to 1 cubic foot, equal to about 1 more,
making about 10 to 1. With this mixture a cask of cement makes
1 cubic yard of concrete.

[1874-75. N.S.] L

146 THE SOUTH JETTY AT KUSTENDJIE.

To prove tlie stability of the blocks tbemselves, without any
superincumbent weight, five tiers were left tintopped from Sep-
tember 1872 to July 1873, at the then extreme end of the work.
They were exposed to heavy seas during the winter ; but none
of them were disturbed or moved except by ordinary settle-
ment. The first portion of the work has now been subjected
to the full force of the sea since September 1871, the second
portion, since 1872, and the last length was finished in September
1873.

To secure the end of the jetty from excessive settlement, the soft
bottom beneath the last seven tiers was removed to a depth of from
3 feet to 4 feet by dredging, and blocks were placed as a footing to
the last three tiers. There is no enlarged head to the jetty, the
end is simply rounded, and a red light is fixed on the top of a
wrought-iron upright, which is built into the concrete.

Cubic feet. Tons. Tons.

The bottom blocks contain .... 515 and weigh from 32 to 34

„ second block in each tier contains . 485 and weighs 30 „ 32

„ third „ „ „ . 455 „ „ 28 „ 30

V top „ „ „ . 425 „ „ 20 „ 28

Each length of topping weighs over 200 tons. The total length
of the extension is 253 feet 6 inches.

The natural bottom is a mixture of sand and mud overlying stifi"
yellow clay, and the weight of concrete presses down the loose
stone base. The blocks have in every case settled vertically,
without disturbing the line of direction, the only efiect of settle-
ment being to open the joints of the concrete cap. The top has
nowhere given way except at the joints ; and the slight openings
at these points can easily be filled up with cement, so soon as
settlement shall entirely cease.

The original design was by Mr. Liddell. The work has been
executed by the Author for the Danube and Black Sea Eailway
and Kustendjie Harbour Company, Limited.

The Paper is accompanied by a drawing, from which Plate 11
has been compiled.

[Mr. Paekes

THE NEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN. 147

Mr. Pakkes said there could be no doubt that the application
of cement concrete to marine works was one of the great features
of the engineering of the present day. Tlie methods described in
the Papers appeared to have been both -svcll devised and carried
out in a practical way. He offered no opinion as to whether the
plans adopted by Mr. Cay for Aberdeen were suitable to the place.
The point to be considered was the limit within which such plans
were ai^plicable at other places. "With regard to the concrete in
bags, if the object was to make a very solid foundation, he
thought it was fully attained, but at a rather heavy cost ; and in
cases that might appear somewhat similar to that of Aberdeen, ho
should not take it for granted that the system there pursued was
necessarily the best. The liquid concrete deposited in bags cost
about 25s. per cubic yard; that which was deposited above low-
water level in frames cost 16s.; so that the sum of 9s. per cubic
yard was due to the extra expense of the former. There was an
item for excavating the foundations of the breakwater — £3,835 —
which, with the ds. per yai'd for 3,202 cubic yards, or £1,441,
gave a total of £5,276 for 45,000 superficial feet, or about 2s. 4d.
per suiDcrficial foot. Nor was that all the cost. It appeared that
the only real use of the staging was for depositing the concrete in
bags. Xo doultt it was afterwards employed for setting blocks,
and putting in concrete in the upper works ; but it was by no
means necessary for either the one or the other. The money
spent upon the setting machines would have provided a Titan
to set the blocks off the end of the work as easil}', or more easily,
than they were arranged from the staging ; but it would have been
impossible to put in the concrete bags from a Titan. The cost of the
staging, therefore, must be added, because it would not have been
necessary but for the particular method adopted for the foundation.
That cost was upwards of £10,000, so that the total cost of the
foundations exceeded £15,000, or 7s. per superficial foot. Mr. Parkes
knew from experience that where rubble stone could be put in for
a foundation, the cost of preparing it to receive the superstructure
did not exceed about Is. 6d. per superficial foot, so that 5s. 6d.
might be regarded as the extra expense of the concrete foundation,
and it was a question whether the additional solidity gained Avas
an equivalent for that amount. It might be so at Aberdeen and
other places, but it oiight }iot to be taken for granted that it was
so in every case. He wished to bear testimony to the ingenious
way in which the work had been devised, especially the plan of
putting the bag into a hopper. The bag was somewhat larger
than the box, so that, on being discharged, it spread out and

L 2

148 THE NEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN.

accommodated itself to the bottom. With regard to the concrete
blocks of from 10 to 20 tons, he agreed in the opinion that the
plan was not altogether faultless. He objected, however, more to
the variety in the size than to the size itself. The same apparatus
was required for setting blocks either of 20 tons or 10 tons, and
the cost was as much for the latter as for the former, though
only half the quantity of work was doaie. The answer to that
probably would be, that to bond the work there must be blocks of
different sizes. He thought, however, that bonded work was a
mistake ; the blocks should be of uniform size, resting upon one
another, and in no case should one block rest upon two. It was
admitted that a block might bridge over a settlement, so as not to
rest upon the one below, in which case the latter might be drawn
out by the sea, and a hole be made in the work. That could not
happen if the blocks were placed one above another in a columnar
form. He entirel}'' approved of the capping of concrete in situ, and
particularly of its not being continuous longitudinally. He did
not think it was right to attempt anything longitudinally rigid
for sea work. No additional stability was gained by an increase
of length in the parts. The superstructure, he believed, would
be just as stable in a series of vertical slabs extending the whole
width of the breakwater as in a continuous length of concrete.
The Author had arrived at the conclusion, from practical consider-
ations, that about 16 feet was the right length for the slabs;
but he thought that 8 feet would be quite as good. It was of
great importance that the several sections of the superstructure
should be detached from one another, and allowed to have some
movement, however slight, between themselves, so as to follow any
settlement in the works below. It had been stated that the blocks
below low water, and up to a little above low water, should be from
100 to 200 tons in weight. That, he thought, depended upon the
facility with which they could be placed. If the blocks were large,
there was great expense in placing them, otherwise the larger the
block the better. He should be glad if some reasons were given for
the particular dimensions adopted for the breakwater, namely,
35 feet in width and 11 feet above high water. The breakwater
at Kustendjie was only 1 2 feet wide at the top. He congratulated
Mr. Cay on the success of this work, and hoped that the extension
of the North Pier would be equally siiccessful.

With regard to the jetty at Kustendjie, one feature of the work
was the contracted space in which it had to be carried on, so that
only twelve blocks could be in hand at one time. That appeared
to have necessitated the adojition of the system of putting the

THE SOUTH JETTY AT KUSTEXDJIE. 149

Llucks iuto the work in a fiesh state, when not more than
twelve or fifteen days old. lie had himself striven to reduce the
time during which concrete blocks were allowed to set. There
was a feeling among engineers, and still more among foremen,
that they ought to be allowed a long time to harden. He was not
of that opinion. In one case, a block of 27 tons was taken up and
put in place ten days after construction, and nothing went wrong.
That fact gave to the persons connected with the works some
confidence, and after that they were used when a month old. If
twelve or fifteen days were sufficient at Kustendjie, there was no
reason why blocks should be kept occupying space even for a
month. The work at Kustendjie reflected great credit on the
designer, Mr. Liddell, as well as on the Author of the Paper.

Mr. Bruxlkes said, about six years ago he had used concrete blocks
for the foundations of a dock at King's Lynn, and also concrete for
pitching the slopes of the dock. Those sloiJes had been exposed for
six years to the weather and to the bumping action of vessels, and
he was glad to say they were as sound as when put down. The
Papers did not deal with any gi'eat extent of work, but they were
valuable in pointing out the way in which similar works might be
conducted. The breakwater at Aberdeen had been, no doubt, con-
ducted very successfull}'. His attention had, however, been drawn
to one item, namely, that £46,000 Avorth of work had been done at
an expense of £30,000 for plant, preparatory works, and buildings,
which seemed an enormous proportion. He was at present using
cement concrete for the dock at the mouth of the Avon, near Bristol.
The walls (Fig. 1) were built in a trench, piles being driven on
each side. Stretchers were then introduced as the excavated
material was taken away. The foundations were of blue lias con-
crete generally to a depth of 6 feet below the level of the dock
floor, but at other points, where the ground was weak, to a depth
of 17' feet below the same level. On the blue lias concrete, and from
2 feet below to 18 feet above the dock floor, the wall was built of
cement concrete faced with Pennant stone. The concrete was tipped
into the excavation from the surface out of barrows, and at the
back it was rammed against the jules and poling boards. The
front of the wall was carried up in rubble at the same rate at
which the cement concrete was put in. The upper part of the wall
was of coursed rubble of the ordinary description. It was found
that in twenty-four hours the concrete was well set. For a work
of that kind, where the ground was weak and slippery, the method
pursued was very appropriate, as it tended rapidly to consolidate
the cement concrete, and he had every reason to be satisfied with

.150

THE NEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN.

the results. The lias concrete cost 9s., and the cement concrete 14.8.
l^er cubic yard. To cheapen the cost of the latter he had tried
mixing it with blue lias, but had not obtained the object hoped for.

Fig. 1.

Dock Tlocr

•20'. O

F,4J /(^

.hj^^^^r.^S^^^.: VotxndaJtion'

Sc/ouie'.

Bristol Port and Channel Dock. — Section of East Wall.

■%'iFtxit'

Mr. Grant agreed with the Author, that it would have been
better if the work below low-water level had been executed with
liquid concrete in bags, instead of with blocks, as now proposed for

THE SOUTH JETTY AT KUSTENDJIE. 151

the extension of the North Pier. That mode would have saved a
great deal of the cost of the heavy staging and plant, amounting
to £23,217, or 30 per cent, of the whole cost, and also of the extra
expense of making and setting the blocks. He believed, when the
new work came to be carried out, that the foundation would be
actually more solid than the work already done with blocks.
He thought the work would have been sounder if, instead of being
iu sections averaging about 20 feet in length, and executed from
1 foot above low water to a height of 18 feet at one operation,
it had been carried out by steps. In the Thames Embankments,
from 8,000 feet to 9,000 feet in length, the mode adopted was to
lay the concrete in such a way that for every ^foot in height there
Avas an advance of at least 3 feet forward. By that method more
perfect homogeneity of construction was secured, and the chance of
vertical fractures avoided. The plan had also the advantage of
graduating the work, so that no excessive weight was suddenly
l>rought upon any part, and there was no unequal settlement.
This was of great importance, not only in a constructive point of
view, but in point of economy. To protect the surface from the
Avash of the returning tide it might be coated with Eoman cement-
grout or other quick-setting cement. He was of opinion that
Avhen the further works at Aberdeen were carried out, this plan
would prove advantageous. The cost of the staging and plant, in
proportion to the outlay, certainly seemed excessive. He had
■calculated the prices as follows : — Concrete deposited liquid iu
bags, 2os. 3d. Si yard ; concrete used in the apron, 44s. 6d. ; con-
crete blocks and block-making, 13s. ; concrete deposited liquid in
frames above low- water level, 16s. 2d. ; average 15s. 9d., to which
10s. had to be added for plant and sea staging. The prices
l)aid in the Thames Embankment recently finished at Chelsea
were, including setting, 10s. 6d. for liquid concrete, where the
proportions were 8 of gravel to 1 of cement; 12s. for liquid con-
crete, where the proportions were 6 to 1 ; and 16s. for blocks,
the iiroportions being 6 to 1. Of course, there might be good
reasons for different prices in different places ; and, generally, the
cost of blocks must be several shillings a yard more than the cost
of liquid concrete. Every movement of heavy materials added to
their cost ; and in the case of cement blocks, there was not only the
•cost of making them, but also of moving and setting them. With
regard to the cement used in the work, the specification was that
the trial brick should bear a tension of COO lbs. on an area of 2^
inches, which was equivalent to 260 lbs. per square inch. The
.standard, adopted for several years by the Metropolitan I'oard of

152 THE NEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN.

Works, was 350 lbs. per square inch, or 787 lbs. on 2^ inchesv
He should be glad to know the cost of rubble at Aberdeen, for
the purposes of comparison. Upwards of five hundred experi-
ments had been made for Mr. Brunlees, which justified the course
taken by him for the dock near Bristol, in keeping the lime and
cement concrete for difibrent parts quite distinct. No advantage
would have been gained by using a mixture of lime and cement.

Mr. G. E. Stephensox, Yice-President, thought the Paper should
have contained some account of the eifect of the sea upon the walls
at Aberdeen. The manner in which piers were now made was-
very difierent from that formerly adoj)ted. Many harbours were
being treated simply as ditches leading from the land into the sea,
and he was satisfied that was wrong. He should like to know
how the work in question affected the entrance to the harbour in
regard to ships going in. In these days, little or no attention
was paid to the position of the piers, which ought to be such as to
admit of vessels running safely in, seeing that steam-tugs were
always available to tow vessels out. His impression was that the
south pier was not in the best position. "With an easterly or a
south-easterly gale, it would be difficult for a vessel to go round
the pier and get into the harbour ; and Avhen the North Pier was.
carried out, he thought the difficulty would be still greater, inasmuch
as, he believed, the range into the harbour would be increased.

Sir John Hawkshaw, Past-President, remarked that he could
not concur in the opinion that those who had to construct har-
bours neglected to consider the way in which vessels should get
in or out. It would be a great slur uj^on them if they did so.
He thought great credit was due to Mr. Cay for the manner in
which the work at Aberdeen had been carried out, and particularly
for the, mode in which a portion had been constructed of concrete
deposited liquid. It had apparently been forgotten that the Aber-
deen breakwater was built in the sea, and not with coffer-dams.
in the Thames. He believed it would have been quite imj^ossible
to build the pier in the way suggested by Mr. Grant. He knew
of no kind of staging by means of which the work could have been
so constructed. Then with regard to the cost of concrete in the
Thames and at Aberdeen, the sea was subject to storms, which
stopped the work, and often prevented the men from doing more
than a third of a day's work in a day, and this alone would account
for the difference. Supposing the staging and plant, instead of
being retained for further use, had been sold for one-fourth of the
original cost, which was not putting it at too high a price, the
work all round would have cost about 28s. per cubic yard, which

THE SOUTH JETTY AT KCSTENDJEE. 153-

certainly was not a liigh figure for work of that description. It
was said that all blocks below low water should bo from 100 tons
to 200 tons in weight. The size of the blocks, however, should
have relation, not only to the sea, the particular locality, and the
cost, but also to the depth at which they were placed. At Holy-
head, where the water was 70 feet or 80 feet deep at the end of
the breakwater, it would not be of the slightest use to employ- a
block of 200 tons weight, while the operation itself would be very
difficult. At great depths the size of the blocks was not of much
consequence. The bottom of the ocean might be composed of
mud, sand, and very small gravel. If the method referred to by
Mr. Grant had been adopted, in the event of a ship coming close
to the side of the breakwater, the bilge would strike against the
projecting concrete, and the ship might be destroyed. Ko general
rule could be laid down ; but the work must be adjusted according
to the circumstances of the case, and often according to the money
to be expended. He was surprised to hear an observation with
regard to the difference in the width of the two breakwaters under
discussion. In many seas, a breakwater 12 feet wide would be of
no more use than a sheet of paper ; the sea would pass through
it as soon as it was built, if it were built at all. The thickness
must depend upon the impact of the sea. In some cases the thick-
ness of the breakwater at Aberdeen would be insufficient. At
Wick, a block 45 feet wide, and weighing 1,400 tons, had been
moved by the sea bodily and horizontally, and shifted landwards.
It was, therefore, no matter of surprise that some piers had to be
made broader than others.

Mr. Alfred Giles thought it was unfair to argue that the cost
of the plant was 30 per cent, of the cost of the breakwater. The
southern breakwater was 1,050 feet in length, and the projected
North Pier was of about equal length; the same plant would
be available for both, so that the cost would only be 15 per cent,
on the whole work. If a Titan were used, the foundation of the
breakwater must first be made, and that would take much longer
than would be required for the staging. It was thirty years since
he used concrete deposited liquid in sitti. He did not employ bags,
but discharged the concrete across a lock entrance by means of a
shoot. If the 100-ton bags used at Aberdeen burst when they got
to the bottom, he thought a shoot would be quite as efficacious,
and much more economical, and would probably answer in the
construction of the North Pier. He should be glad to know
whether any advantage had been found to result from the use
of fresh water instead of salt water for the concrete. As the

154 THE NEW SOUTH BREAK WATER AT ABERDEEK.

iDreakwater, including a great part of the staging, was executed
ut a cost of £05 per lineal foot, tlicrc was not much to complain
of in respect to the general expense. He thought there was not
the slightest analogy between the cost of work on the river walls
of the Thames and that at an exposed place like Aberdeen.

Mr. Aberxe thy remarked that the old breakwater was originally
constructed in 1812 by Mr. Gibb, the then resident Engineer, who
consulted Mr. Telford on the subject. The object was not to pro-
tect the entrance of the harbour, but the piers then in progress.
Mr. Telford pointed out that if the old south pier was not extended
parallel with the north pier to the full length, the effect would
be a contraction of the harbour entrance and the formation of a
shoal within the north pier-head. That result followed, and
the state of the harbour entrance from 1812 until the end of last
year was just as had been anticipated. It was obvious that as the
end of the breakwater was immediately oj)posite the termina-
tion of the north pier, it could afford no protection from south-
easterly seas, and that the danger to vessels entering during
those gales would be increased. Therefore, as far back as 1846,
the subject of moving the breakwater farther seaward was
]jrought before the Harbour of Eefuge Commission, and again
in 1850 before the Harbour Commissioners of Aberdeen, also
in 1860 and 1802. In 1867, Mr. Cay, adopting suggestions that
had been thrown out for many years, brought forward a plan for
the removal of the breakwater seaward and the extension of the
North Pier. "With certain modifications in the direction of the
breakwater, and also in the details of the North Pier, made by Sir
John Hawkshaw and himself, the plan was being carried out. Mr.
Cay deserved great credit for the way in which he had completed
the work, and for the substitution of concrete deposited in a liquid
condition for blocks above low water. With regard to the section
of the North Pier to which reference had been made, no doubt
the bags would form an excellent foundation, but they should not be
carried up to the level indicated, because there would be an open
joint along the whole face between the mass of solid concrete and
the bags so deposited. He was of opinion that blocks of concrete,
or concrete en masse, should be carried considerably below the level
of low- water.

Mr. Cay, in reply upon the discussion, said the staging was
determined on before the bags were thought of, and was meant to
•serve for building the blocks. The staging was preferred to a
Titan crane, as, to make rapid progress, the latter would have
lequircd an almost impracticable extent of overhang, owing to the

THE SOUTH JKTTi- AT KUSTEXDJIE. 155

iirraiigement of the bouJ of the Llocks, the height of the work, and
the fouuclatious, the excavations for which had to he prepared in
advance of the bxiikling. Under these circumstances it was un-
reasonable to charge the expense of the staging exclusively against
the bag-work in the foundations. The cost should be charged to
the concrete blocks and to the apron. In reference to the relative
expenditure, the plant and buildings were intended to be used for
another similar work at Aberdeen. That under discussion was
.shorter than had been originally intended, so that the cost of the •
plant should be distributed over a larger amount of work than had
lieen described in the Paper. As the working season in each year
was short, the exposure great, and the total expense and risk
depended very much on the number of year;; occupied, the use of a
powerful plant was advisable and economical. In any case the
relative cost of the plant for sea-works should not be compared
with that for structures on shore, or in the interior of harbours.

Making allowance for part of the cost of the plant, buildings, &c.,
being charged against the northern extension, of for their being-
sold, and adding for some exjjenditure incurred since the 3Cth of
♦September, 1873, the following was the revised statement of the
work and expenditure : —

yards. £. S. (/. .t. .9. (.1 .

Excavatin"; for the foundations of break-i „„,„,, „

water. } " 3.8G9 14 7

Concrete deposited liquid in bags in the) „„„„ . r..- r ^

•fonndations .......} ^'202 4,04o 5 2

Ditto ditto in apron, including part of\

the cost of the plant / ^''^''^ -'"^"^ ^ "

Concrete blocks and block-making , . 22,851 11,839 G 7

Block-setting ditto 3,350 18 10

Concrete deposited liquid in frames i „„ f.^., -m r-A-i ^^^ <.•
, , ^ . , 1 \ 23,9/2 19, /41 lo b

above low-water level )

Lighthouse 353 9 8

48,252 10 3

Preparatory works 2,79G 14 9

Buildings 1,107 12 11

Plant G,319 8 5

Sea staging 8,311 18 8

Sundries. . 1,309 5 G

Total . . . £G8,097 10 G

That sum deducted from the total expenditure left £9,878 2s. Ad.
fis the value of plant, buildings, rails, masts, and materials in hand
to be charged to other works, or to be sold. Dividing the expense
<jf plant, buildings, staging, &c., in due proportions over the dif-

156 THE NEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN.

ferent parts of the work, tlieir relative cost was approximately as
follows : —

DescnptionofWovlc. ^ ^i^^'^

£. s. d. £. s. d.

Excavating for the foundations of the break-| a Q^\± i± n

water / " " '

Concrete deposited liquid in bags in thej ^ ^q2 1 15 5 5 712 16 5

foundations J'~^ '"

Ditto ditto in ajjron 1,33G 1 17 0 2,473 15 2

Concrete blocks and block-making . . .22,851 0 IG 1 19,259 3 3

Block-setting ditto 0 11 5 13,079 17 8

''To™te.Tvd^''^^^^^^^^ 0 18 7 22.283 13 9

Liglitliouse ,. 383 9 8

Total as above . . . £G8,097 10 G

Had the breakwater been carried out to the length originally
intended, it would have cost about £10,850 additional, making a
total of £78,947 10s. 6d., which agreed closely with the preliminary
estimate.

The item for excavation for the foundations referred to the re-
moval of loose stones, gravel, and sand, which would be requisite
under any system of procedure, so that its cost should not properly
be taken into account in the comparison; the expense of this
preliminary work, however, for that part of the breakwater
founded on bags was about 2s. 4^3,. per superficial foot. As the
cost of the bag-work j)er cubic yard was £l 15s. hd., and that of a
corresponding bulk of concrete block, for which it was substituted,
was £l 7s. 6of., the sum to be charged to the expense of preparing
foundations by this system was 7s. \ld. Each square yard required
on an average -f cubic yard of concrete in bags; thus the cost
per square yard was Qs. 4d., or per square foot about Shd.

In the extension of the North Pier, about to be carried out, a
section of which was shown in Fig. 2, and of which a model was
exhibited, the foundation was sand, with solid ground at a depth
of 7 feet below the surface. The whole of the submarine part,
from the foundations to about 3 feet aboye L. W. O. S. T., a height
of 22 feet, was to be formed of bags, each containing 50 tons of
liquid concrete. A wide platform of these bags would be first laid
as a foundation, and would be left to settle into the sand. When
consolidated b}' the action of the waves, bags of concrete would be
deposited on it, so as to bring the surface above low water, above
which the work would be entirely of concrete deposited liquid in
frames, in pieces of about 700 tons each. The 50-ton bags would

THE SOUTH JETTY AT KUSTENDJIE.

]57

be deposited by a hopper barge, similar to that iised for depositing
dredgings, except that the slope of the well in the middle of the
vessel would be modified. The precise spot for the bags wo\ald
be fixed by lines ranged at right angles to one another by marks

Fig. 2.

H.W.

L. W.

S.T.

P. T.

'j^V

_ I- ' '. SO Con bags • . o ' ' 'i

<■ Q . ^ 'g a ■ . "■ \ •>:■ ■. ■• c. • ■> ■ ". ■_■'':'':,' '. °'. of ■ • '.v ' ■' : '• ; -W ?

6' oc /■(. c^
SccUa

FaetlV

■.'/! .1C <3-C f>CTC£t

Aberdekx Harbour. — Proposed Extension' op North Pier.

on the shore and the pier, and the barge would be securely moored
durino- the operation by six chains and rope warps, with six
winches on deck for heaving on them and bringing the barge to
its proper position. The contract price for such a barge delivered
at Aberdeen was £2,302 ; that of a barge to deposit 100-ton bags
of concrete was only £3,300; and though its first cost was £1,000
more than the vessel for depositing 50-ton bags, owing to fewer
workmen and less time being required to deposit a given quantity
of concrete, the larger vessel would be the cheaper of the two to
employ in a work of great size.

The New South Breakwater had answered the purpose intended,
and vessels could now enter the harbour during southerly or south-
easterly gales. The only danger at present to be apprehended
during storms was from the breaking seas caused by the shallow
water on the bar ; this danger it was expected that the extension
of the North Pier would obviate, as thereby a greater depth of
water at the entrance would be secured and the bar be removed.
An increase of depth of 10 feet was expected to be obtained at the
entrance by the comliined efiects of dredging and the extension of
the North Pier by 1,000 feet.

Sir John Coode, through the Secretary, remarked that he had

158 THE NEW SOUTH BREAKWATER AT ABERDEEN.

been the first to employ Poitland-ceraent concrete for the external
Avork of sea piers, having so used it about ten years since, not only
for the facing of the main walls, as well as for the backing, but
also in parapets, copings, and paving blocks in a pier exposed to the
North Sea. He had also largely and continuously adopted it since
that time in other sea works. He was glad, therefore, to find that
the use of concrete for building breakwaters was rapidly extending,
for his confidence in this material increased as time progressed. It
would have been an advantage if more definite information had
been furnished as to the extent to which the concrete in the 100-ton
bags had suffered by the fall, when dropped from the box sup-
ported on brackets, as described in the Paper on the Aberdeen
breakwater. The system of forming concrete foundations by bags
deposited from iron skips had been successfully employed, and it
was believed for the first time in the United Kingdom, in some
sea walls constructed under Mr. James Barton, M. Inst. C.E., at
the New Harbour at Greenore, in Carlingford Lough ; and the
deposition of liquid concrete in situ within three-sided frames lined
with bagging had also been effected in a steam-packet pier at
Douglas, in the Isle of Man, prior to its employment at Aberdeen.
From the experience gained at Douglas, Sir John Coode could
recommend the practice for moderate depths of water, especially
where the bottom on which it was required to found the work
was rocky and uneven ; but this, like every other system, had its
drawbacks, and was not suitable for all cases.

Mr. Stoney observed, through the Secretary, that the deposition
of 100-ton masses of concrete in bags was an ingenious and valuable
addition for protecting the toes of breakwaters in comparativel}'
shallow water, where the depth was not sufficiently great to pre-
vent the waves moving an ordinary rubble foreshore, composed of
stones of from 3 tons to 4 tons in weight. This would in most
localities vary from 9 feet to 12 feet below low water; at greater
depths, stone would be much cheaper than, and equally efficacious
as, large bags of concrete, which in the Aberdeen breakwater
apparently cost £2 4s. 6d. per cubic yard. For the extension of
the North Pier it was proposed to use large blocks of concrete of
from 100 tons to 200 tons deposited liquid in bags, to form that
portion which was below low-water level. Mr. Stoney thought
there would be some difficulty in this, in consequence of the ten-
dency of such large soft masses to spread and burst the bags,
unless deposited within frames. However, the Author's expe-
rience might have suggested means of overcoming this difficulty.
Mr. Stoney had, aboixt six years since, successfully deposited a

THE SOUTH JETTY AT KUSTEND.JIE. 150

largo quantity of concrete under water in ordinary sacks, sucli as
those used for holding corn. Each sack contained 6 cubic feet of
concrete, which weighed a little more than 8 cwt. The cost of
the sacks was at the rate of 3s. 2d. per cithic yard of concrete, but
this item might probably be reduced if a large quantity of sacks
were bought by contract. When laid in tiers over each other, an
upper tier fitted into the inequalities of the one below, and though
the cohesion of sack to sack was not equal to that of concrete to
itself without the interposition of sacking, yet they dovetailed
into each other and formed a capital wall so long as the founda-
tions were unyielding. In this respect he fully agreed in the
remark, that blocks of 10 to 20 tons in the lower part of vertical
breakwaters, similar to that at Aberdeen, appeared to be their
weak part, for, if the foundations turned out to be soft material, a
slight yielding would allow the blocks to be loosened and broken
up by heavy seas. Moreover, it must always be difficult, if not
impossible, to thoroughly bed these blocks when under water, for
mortar could not be laid between them, and, consequently, the
majority of such blocks must be supported at their ends only, or
unequally. For this as well as other reasons, large blocks of from
300 to 500 tons each would form the best substratum of a vertical
wall. Mr. Stoney believed the only feasible method yet proposed
for the purpose was that he had already described^ for buildinci,-
large blocks on terra firma, and then conveying them afloat to their
destination in fine weather. He might add that the blocks now
being employed at Dublin Harbour were 29 feet in height, or 2
feet higher than those described in the Paper. The loss of iron
tie-rods in masses of concrete built within frames might be obviated
by placing two narrow boards, nailed together in the form of an
inverted V? over the tie-rod before throwing the concrete around
it. This would form a small tube in the mass, and permit the
withdrawal of the tie-rod when the concrete was hard.

' Vide Minutes of Proceedings lust. C.E., vol. xxxvii., p. ?>?>2.

160 A]^NUAL GENERAL MEETING.

ANNUAL GENEKAL MEETING.

December 22, 1874.

THOS. E. HAEKISON, President,

in the Chair.

The list of memhers nominated as suitable to fill the several
offices in the Council was read.

Messrs. C. Frewer, H. Hayter, C. E. Hollingsworth, Eob. C. May,
T. M. Smith, F. Stevenson, and Joseph Taylor, were requested to act
as Scrutineers of the Ballot, for the election of the President, Vice-
Presidents, and other Members and Associates of Council for the
ensuing year ; and it was resolved that the Ballot Papers should
be sent for examination every quarter of an hour that the Ballot
remained open.

The Ballot having been declared open, the Annual Eeport of the
Council, on the proceedings of the Institution during the past
year, was read. (^Vide page 162.)

Resolved, — That the Eeport of the Council be received and
approved, that it be referred to the Council to be arranged for
printing, and that it be circulated with the Minutes of Proceed-
ings in the usual manner.

Eesolved, — That the thanks of the Institution are due, and are
presented to Messrs. Alfred Eumball (acting for William Lloj^d)
and John Thornhill Harrison, for the comprehensive statement of
Eeceipts and Payments they have prepared ; and that Messrs. John
Thornhill Harrison and Charles Frewer be requested to act as
Auditors for the ensuing year.

Mr. Lloyd returned thanks.

The Telford and Watt Medals, the Telford and Manby Premiums,
and the Miller Prizes, which had been awarded, were presented, j
{Vide pages 178 and 179.)

Eesolved, — That the thanks of the Institution are justly due,
and are presented to the Vice-Presidents and other members of
the Council, for their co-operation with the President, their
constant attendance at the Meetings, and their zeal on behalf of
the Institution.

Mr. Stephenson, Vice-President, returned thanks.

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING. 161

Eesolved unanimously, — That the cordial thanks of the Meeting
1)0 given to Mr. Harrison, President, for his strenuous efforts i:i
the interests of the Institution, for his extraordinary attention to
the duties of his office, and for the urbanity he has at all times
displayed in the Chair.

Mr. Harrison, President, returned thanks.

Eesolved, — That the best thanks of the Meeting be given to
Mr. Charles Manby, the Honorary Secretary, and to Mr. James
Forrest, the Secretary, for their unremitting and zealous services
on behalf of the Institution and of the profession.

Mr. Manby and Mr. Forrest returned thanks.

The Ballot having been open more than an hour, the Scrutineers,
after examining the papers, announced that the following gentle-
men were duly elected : —

President.
THOMAS ELLIOT HARRISON.

Vice-Presidents.

William Henry Barlow, F.R.S.
John Frederic Bateman, F.R.S.

George Willoughby Hemans.
George Robert Stephenson.

Other Mkmbkrs of Council.
Menibers.

James Abernethy.

Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,F.R.S.

Sir Joseph Wm. Bazalgette, C.B.

George Berkley.

Fred. Jos. Bramwell, F.R.S.

James Brunlees.

Sir John Coode.

William Pole, F.R.S.

Charles William Siemens, F.R.S.

Sir Jos. Whitworth,Bart., F.R.S.

George Barclay Bruce. I Edward Woods.

Associates.

Major J. U. Bateman-Charapain, R.E.

John Head. Colonel Charles Pasley, R.E.

Resolved, — That the thanks of the Meeting be given to Messrs.
Frewer, Hayter, Hollingsworth, May, Smith, Stevenson, and
Taylor, the Scrutineers, for the promptitude and efficiency with
which they have performed the duties of their office; and that
the Ballot Papers be destroyed.

[Annual Rkport.
[1874-75. N.S.] M

162

ANNUAL REPORT.

ANNUAL REPORT,

Session 1874-75,

The Council, on undertaking the direction and management of your
affairs, enter into an obligation to draw up a report on the state
of the Institution, to be read at this meeting. That obligation
they now proceed to discharge, in the full assurance that the
condition of the ^Society will be found in all respects eminently
satisfactory.

The Eoll of the Institution.
Much attention has been necessarily given to the numerous and
increasing applications for admission, and especially to the clas-
sification of the applicants. Many candidates desire to be at once
recommended for election as Members, but on this point the
bye-laws and regulations are clear and precise; and unless a
candidate has had the responsible professional charge, for at least
five years, of the execution of adequately important works " in
some of the branches defined by the Charter^ as constituting
the profession of a Civil Engineer," he cannot be nominated

1 The nature and objects of Civil Engineering -were described by the late
Thomas Tredgold, Hon.. M. Inst. C.E. (vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E.,
vol. xxvii., p. 181) ; and an abstract of his definition was subsequently embodied,
as follows, in the Royal Charter of Incorporation whicli was granted to "The
Institution of Civil Engineers " on the 3rd of June, 1828 :

" A Society for the general advancement of Mechanical Science, and more
particularly for promoting the acquisition of that species of knowledge which con-
stitutes the profession of a Civil Engineer ; being the art of directing the great
sources of power in Nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of
production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied
in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation, and
docks, for internal_intercourse and exchange; and in the construction of ports
harbours, moles, breakwaters, and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by
artificial jxiwer, for tlie purposes of commerce; and in the construction and
adaptation of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns."

ANNUAL nEPORT. 163

fur McnibersLip. The requirements arc strict, Lnt justly so;
and it is Lelieved that any relaxation in these regulations would
be prejudicial to the interests of the Institution, as well as of the
profession of which it is the representative. When the rxxles were
first framed, it was anticipated that Associates might, subsequently
to their election, become qualified for Members, and provision was
accordingly made for their transfer. During the past session
the Council have had the pleasure to raise 23 Associates to
the class of Members, as reported at the Ordinary Meetings. Of
the new candidates 23 were elected Members, while out of the
170 who were passed as Associates, 5 declined or failed to complete
their elections.

Some dissatisfaction has been expressed with the present defi-
nition of the class of Associates. In the bye-laws, Associates are
described as persons " not necessarily Civil Engineers by profession,
but whose pursuits constitute branches of Engineering, or who
are, by their connection with Science or the Arts, qualified to
concur with Civil Engineers in the advancement of professional
knowledge." There is reason to believe that many young profes-
sional men, who wish to join the Institution, but who are not yet
fully qualified for the rank of Member, think it a hardship that
they should be called by a name which does not imply full fellowship,
and should be classed with persons " not necessarily Engineers."
It must be recollected that the condition of the profession has
much changed of late years ; and it may be open for consideration
whether some modification cannot be devised, which, while retain-
ing an honourable distinction for the more experienced members,
will yet afford a just recognition of the position of their j'ounger
brethren.

In the past twelve months there has been an efiective addition
<jf 26 Members and of 110 Associates, 39 of the latter having
previously been Students : the Honorary Members remain the same.
Five years ago the numbers of the three classes composing the
Corporation were 16 Honorary Members, 655 Members, and 920
Associates, together 1,591 ; now these numbers are 15, 792, and
1,323, making the total 2,130 of all grades, and representing
an accession of 539, or 31 per cent, nearly, in the interval. But
in that period the Members have only increased 21 per cent.,
while the increase of Associates has been 44 per cent. In
other words, on the 30th of November, 1869, the proportions of
the three classes were 10, 412, and 578 per thousand; now the
proportions are 7, 372, and 621 per thousand, showing a growing
preponderance in the Associate class. The particulars of the

M 2

164

ANNUAL REPORT.

various alterations, and the numloers of tlie different grades, in the-
.last two sessions, are recorded in the subjoined table.^

The Institution is approaching the close of the 57th year since
its foundation. Dividing that term into three equal periods, it
may be stated that at the end of the first epoch, 1818-36, the
Corporation consisted of 252 members of all classes, at the end of
the second, 1837-55, the number was 787, and now at the termi-
nation of the third, 1856-74, it is 2,130, without including the
class of Students.

The death rate during the past year has been 19 per thousand
upon the present number of members ; but this, as might be
surmised, was not equally distributed, for the rate was 24 per
thousand among the Members, and only 16 per thousand in the case
of the Associates, owing no doubt to the larger proportion of
young life in the latter class. The deceased Members had belonged
to the Institution for periods varying from 44 to 5 years, the
average being nearly 21;^ years ; while the Associates had been
on the books for periods of from 35 to 4 years, the average in
this case being 17. The list of deceases contains the names of
several well-known and distinguished engineers, who added to the
lustre and increased the renown of the profession. In the follow-

' The tabular statement for the years 1872-73 and 1873-74, of the transfers,
elections, deceases, resignations, and erasures of the members of all classes be-
longing to the Corporation, that is, exclusive of the Students, is as follows : —

Yeak.

o a

Associates.

1872-73.
Transferred to Members .
Elections

• •

1*7

137

154-43=111
43

Deaths

Resignations

Erased from Rfgister .

Members of all Classos on the"!
Books, 30th November, 1873/

1873-74.
Transferred to Members .

Elections

Restored to Register . . .
T)pnths ... - .

766

1,213

1,994

105

7
5

ll89-53 = 136
1 53

Resignations

Erased from Register . . .

Members of all Classes on the"l
Books, 30th November, 1874/

792

1,323

2,130

ANNUAL REPORT. 165

ing list the figures against the several names indicate the nnmher
of years each member had been on the register : —

Members: Henry Baylis (7), Sir John Benson (12), George
Black (9), John William Blackburne (5), George Clarisse Dobson
(34), Sir William Fairbairn, Bart., F.B.S. (44), Sir Charles Fox
(36), John Grantham (34), John D'Urban Hughes (33), Thomas
Marr Johnson (22), William Blake Lambert (25), Thomas Login
(6), William Hartley (7), William Eichard Morris (8), Henry
James Walton Neville (10), Sir John Eennie, F.B.S., rast-Bre-
sident (30), James Samuel (25), Frederick Albert Winsor (39), and
Thomas Alfred Yarrow (17).

Associates : James Allan (25), Thomas Bell (20), Lieut. Gordon
Bigsby, B.E. (7), Eobert Broad (8), Thomas Gaul Browning (12),
William Crosley (24), James Benjamin Dunn (15), Cornelius
Willes Eborall (9), Ealph Elliot (8), Joseph Samuel Forbes (4),
Sir Eichard Atwood Glass (16), Thomas Grissell (35), James
Innes Hopkins (4), Edward Barber Humble (8), Sampson Lloyd
(17), Sir Harry Stephen Meysey-Thompson, Bart. (8), John
Eoe (32), Sir Francis Pettit Smith (26), General Sir John Mark
Frederic Smith, K.E., B.E. (33 j, William Woodcock (19), and
Charles Favell Forth Wordsworth, Q.C. (23).

The names of the following members, who have signified, in
writing, their desire to resign, have been withdrawn from the
list : —

Member : Charles Baxter Cousens.

Associates : Frederick Eobert Browning, Herbert Bland Brown-
ing, William Harker, Francis King, Lieut.-Col. William Lawtie
Morrison, B.E., Sir George Frederick Yerdon, C.B., F.B.S., and
Edward Eomilly Y'illis.

The Students attached to the Institution.

When it is remembered that no one can become a candidate for
election into the Corporation until he is upwards of 25 years of
age, the necessity for a junior class will be apparent. Moreover,
both in the best interests of the Corporation and of the profession,
it is essential that every engineering pupil should at the very
outset of his career be recognised by, and be attached to, the
Institution. Before the Student class was organised, young
engineers were, to a large extent, excluded, by the limitation of
age, from the benefits of the Society. Now that class may be
looked upon not only as a feeder, but as introducing to the body regu-
larly trained engineers. It is therefore gratifying to the Council
to be able to report that 82 candidates were admitted Students

16G ANNUAL REPORT.

(luring tlie last session, and that tlie efifective increase in the year
lias been 23, bringing wp the total to 282.

It has been iinder consideration Avhether any alterations should
be proposed in the rules respecting the class of Students. They are
now simply recommended for admission by the Members or As-
sociates under whom they are, or have been, in the course of pre-
paration and training for the profession, and on such nomination
they have been admitted. It has been suggested that, if the
present mode of admission be continued, engineers should take as-
pupils only those who have received a special scientific education,
or who have shown, by examination, that they possess certain
preliminary knowledge of a kind likely to fit them for becoming
Engineers. The question is, however, so intricate, that at present
the Council are not prepared to make an}^ definite recommendations ;
but it will continue to receive the attention Avhich the importance
of the subject demands.

Finance.

The broad features of the cash statement annexed to this Eeport^
as certified by the Auditors, may be briefly indicated. Last year
the gross receipts were nearly £9,000, in the twelve months just
concluded they have reached £10,000 ; then the ordinary expenditure
was about £6,000, now the total payments have amounted to £7,000.
This excess in the disbursements is in part due to increased esta-
blishment charges, but is mainly owing to the liabilities incurred
for the " Minutes of Proceedings," the publications being debited
with the large sum of £3,115. That sum, however, represents part
of the expense of publications which in the ordinary course would
have been included in the next year's accounts, and is therefore
more than the cost of two such volumes as have lately been issued
annually. The Council, looking at the cash balance in hand, has
deemed it expedient to make this anticipation in the regular time
of payment on account of work done by the printer and the en-
eiraver, and thus to secure an extra discount. A more exact
analysis of the financial statement shows that the subscriptions
alone, with dividends on Institution investments, forming the
income proper, amounted to £7,310 13s. ; that the Telford, Manby,
Miller, and Howard Trust Funds realised £447 17s. 5d. ; and that
the life compositions, the admission and building fund fees, and
a further small sum from the residuary estate of Mr. Telford, —
all which are treated as capital, and invested accordingly, — pro-
duced £1,931 7s. 2d. Certain miscellaneous items, yielding to-

ANNUAL REPORT. 107

gctlier £301 17s. lid., liad not been included in the revenue
named, as they were in the nature of sct-oifs to expenditure.
After allowing for these, as well as for the outlay on account
of premiums under trust, £240 9s. 8d., the net expenditure became
£6,488 l5. 4d.

Investments.

The further small sum of £14 lis, 8d. received from Mr. Tel-
ford's estate, and the balance of income on this account, £51 2s.,
not expended in 1873, were invested in £15 15s. lOd. and
£55 10s. 9d. Three per cent. Annuities, thus raising the nominal
capital of the original bequest to £5,425 lis. 5c?., and of
the accumulations of dividends to £3,070 8s. Id., together,
£8,495 19s. 6d. In like manner the accumulations of the Miller
Fund were increased to the extent of £136 18s. 3d. Annuities, repre-
senting £125 19s. Id. not expended in 1873, bringing up the par
value of such accumulations to £1,576 lis. 9d. in addition to that
of the original bequest of £3,100, together now standing in the
books at £4,676 lis. 9c?. On the Institution's account a sum of
£2,805 18s. 2d. was invested in the purchase of £750 Great
Northern Eailway, £500 London and North-Western Railway, £500
London, Brighton, and South Coast Eailway, and £1,000 Lan-
cashire and Yorkshire Eailway Four per cent. Debenture Stocks, by
which the holding of the Corporation in each of these several
stocks has been raised to £3,000 at par value.

The Funds.

The securities representing the various investments are annually
inspected by the Auditors, when preparing the Abstract of Eeceipts
and Payments. From that Abstract, it will be found that the
Funds now belonging to, or under the charge of, the Corporation
— the details of which are given — are as follows : —

£. 8. d.

Institution Investments 18,994 1 8

Trust Funds 13,924 5 9

Total nominal or par value . . . 32,918 7 5

Cash in hands of the Treasurer . . . £241 14 10
Less petty cash due to the Secretary . 18 11

240 .5 11

Together amounting to . . . £33,158 13 4
as compared with £30,223 8s. 6d. at the date of the last Report,

168 ANNUAL KEPORT.

Of these Funds a sum of £11,968 7s, 5d. is placed in Government
Stocks, and £20,950 stands in nearly equal proportions in guaranteed
stocks of seven of the principal railway companies.^ The invest-
ments yield an average rate of interest of 3| per cent.

The Ordinary Meetings.

The " Minutes of Proceedings," vols, xxxvii. and xxxviii., having
been issued during the recess, the members will be aware that
twelve Original Communications were read and discussed, at the
twenty-three Ordinary Meetings of the past session. A brief
allusion to the contents of these volumes will suffice to show the
variety and interest of the topics that have engaged attention
during the period under review. The Papers related to the following
subjects — Modern Locomotives, designed with a view to economy,
durability, and facility of repair, together with some particulars
of the duty performed and of the cost of repairs ; the construction
and maintenance of the Harbour at Braye Bay, Alderney; the
geological conditions affecting the construction of a Tunnel between
England and France; the Mechanical Production of Cold; the
Portslade Gasworks, belonging to the Brighton and Hove General
Gas Company ; the construction of Harbour and Marine Works with
artificial blocks of large size ; the works for the Supply of Water to

1 The folio \\ing is a summary of the diflferent secuiities in which these Funds
are placed : —

Government Stocks : — £. s, d. £. $. d.

Three per Cent. Consols 5,799 19 6

Three per Cent. Annuities 3,946 4 0

New Three per Cents 2,222 3 11

■ 11,968 7 5

Great Eastern Kail way : —

Five per Cent. Preference Stock 200 0 0

Four per Cent. Debenture Stock 4,750 0 0

■ 4,950 0 0

Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway : —
Four per Cent. Debenture Stock 3,000 0 0

London and Noith Western Railway : —

Four per Cent. Debenture Stock 3,000 0 0

London, Brighton, and South Coast Railway: —

Four per Cent. Debenture Stock . . 1.500 0 0

Four and a Half per Cent. Debenture Stock l.-'iOO 0 0

3,000 0 0

North Eastern Railway : —

Four per Cent. Debenture Stock 3,000 0 0

Great Northern Railway : —

Four per Cent. Debenture Stock 3,000 0 0

Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway : —

Four and a Half per Cent. Debenture Stock" 1,000 0 0

Total nominal or par value .... £32,918 7 5

ANNUAL REPORT. 169

the City of DiiLliu ; the Great Basses liighthouso, Ceylon ; the
tracing and construction of Eoads in Mountainous Tropical
Countries ; Gun-carriages and Mechanical Appliances for working
Heavy Ordnance ; the Fixed Signals of Eailways ; and Peat Fuel
Machinery.

To the Authors of several of these communications Premiums
have been awarded, out of the special Trust Funds bequeathed or
assigned for the purpose, as follows : Telford Medals and Premiums
to Bindon Blood Stoney, M.A., Eichard Christopher Eapier, and
Joseph Prestwich, F.E.S. ; Watt Medals and Telford Premiums to
Alexander Carnegie Kirk and George Wightwick Eendel ; Telford
Premiums to Major James Browne, E.E., William Douglass, and
Joseph McCarthy Meadows ; while the Manby Premium was ad-
judged to Leveson Francis Vemon-Harcourt, M.A.

The Supplemental Meetings.

The Students assembled on ten evenings. On each occasion
a Paper was read by a member of that class, the Meetings being
presided over, as a rule, by one of the Council. Miller prizes were
awarded to some of the writers as follows : viz., to James Charles
Inglis, Matthew Curry, jun., W^alter Young Armstrong, Charles
Graham Smith, Alfred Fyson, and George Edward Page. The
most satisfactory communications were those descriptive of works
actually executed under the eyes of the respective Authors, and
these gave rise to well-sustained discussions. A few, however,
evinced a lack of originality, and one contained hardlj^ anything
relating to engineering science, but was principally devoted to
.speculations. The Meetings were better attended than in the
previous year, but still not so well as might be expected, con-
.sidering the advantages they afford for mutual improvement.

As an additional incentive and encouragement to the Students, it
has been determined to establish a series of Scholarships, to be called
"The Miller Scholarships of The Institution of Civil Engineers,"
and to award one such Scholarship, not exceeding £40 in value,
each year, and tenable for three years, as a reward for the best
Paper written by a Student, always supposing the best Paper to be
sufficiently important.

Invitations for Papers.

In accordance with custom, the Council have issued a List of
Subjects on which Papers are invited, and have this year pre-
fixed to the list a statement of the nature and amount of the

170 ANNUAL REPORT.

funds at their disposal for rewarding the Authors of meritorious
Original Communications on any subjects of engineering interest
(Vide page 180). They trust that members of all classes will
earnestly aid in the endeavour to keep up, and, if possible,
laise, the character of the Papers, which should advance in
importance and in merit, in proportion as the operations of the
profession extend. While the Society was young, it was felt to be
essential to obtain and to record the best and most complete data
as to works actually executed, and the invitations were aimed
mainly at subjects of this kind. But now that practical construc-
tion has become much more widely known, and that information
upon it is so readily accessible, communications of this class, to
be of real value, should present remarkable points of special in-
terest or novelty.

The Council feel that what should now be encouraged are
Papers embodying careful thought and intelligent study rather
than bare description. There is no lack of examples of high-class
essays on engineering topics, and no lack of subjects offering-
abundant scope for others. It has already been intimated that
memoirs will be received on projected works, when such memoirs
relate to honct fide undertakings, and deal with the discussion of
important scientific engineering problems, provided the Papers
are submitted with the sanction of the engineers responsible for
the works in question. And further, any scientific essay which
has a practical bearing on engineering oj)eration8 will be ac-
-ceptable. The Council venture to hope that many highly educated
and experienced engineers will be prepared to contribute com-
munications of a character to do honour to the body to which they
belong.

The Council have thought it right to subject all Papers to
a more searching examination than heretofore; and while they
offer a welcome reception to any contribution, if it shows original
merit, they will be compelled to exclude merely commonplace de-
scriptions of ordinary works, which descriptions, as they have
pointed out, are no longer of the same use as in former days.

The Public A.TIONS.

The Council have continued to give earnest attention to the
Publications, for as the number of members who can attend the
Meetings must form a very small proportion of the whole body,
the publications afford the chief evidence on which the Institution
will be judged by the generality of the profession, as well as by

ANNUAL EEPORT. 171

the scientific world, and constitute tlie principal bond of union
among the members, who are dispersed over every portion of the
globe. For these reasons it is highly important not only that a
full and faithful transcript of the proceedings of the Meetings
should be presented, but that the publications should be creditable
both in a scientific and in a literary point of view.

In pursuance of the announcement in the last Eeport, active steps
have this year been taken to extend the scope and to increase the
contents of the j^ublications. In that report it was stated that, in
addition to the ordinary Minutes of Proceedings, such Papers as had
been accepted but not read might be formed into a second section.
It was also announced that " a summary of information, gathered
from the transactions of foreign engineering societies, and from
foreign scientific periodicals," would be added as a third section,
so as to render the Minutes " a perfect record, however brief, of
the progress of engineering science." A few years ago the pro-
ceedings were contained in one annual volume of 540 pages, after-
wards expanded into two volumes together of 944 pages. Now
it is projDOsed to issue one volume of about 350 pages as early in
each quarter as circumstances will permit.

With regard to the projected " summary of information from,
foreign transactions and periodicals," it was decided that a mere
notice where such information might be obtained would be but of
little practical value. As many members have not time to peruse
the original articles, it was deemed expedient that the most im-
portant portion of each article should be abstracted with as much
brevity as was consistent with clearness, so that each abstract
should afford definite information. Articles descriptive of engineer-
ing works in progress or completed, of mining operations, of rail-
ways, of sanitary works, of telegraphs, and treatises of a theoretical
character, will be embodied in this section. It may be objected
that a notice of any work of real importance is certain to have
apjieared previously in some other publication. But even if thin
should be the case, it has been found, as a matter of experience,
that the information thus given is often disconnected, not usually
from responsible authorities, nor always treated in the pro-
fessional manner to which the members have beconie accustomed.
Besides, such other publications may not at all times be within
reach. It is believed that by the changes now being made
in the " Minutes of Proceedings," members in the most remote
regions will be periodically informed not only of wliat is going
on at home, but also of every important transaction which takes
place abroad.

172 ANNUAL KEPORT.

In the selection of the abstracts, and generally in arranging the
work, it has been thought expedient to follow the mode of proce-
dure adopted b}" other societies whose publications contain abstracts
on the same principle. There has gradually been assembled round
each of such publications a staff of members actuated by a public
spirit, and willing to devote their talents and time to the further-
ance of knowledge. It is earnestly hoped that so laudable an
example will be followed, and that members who are in a position
to furnish abstracts on subjects with which they are specially
acquainted, will consider it a pleasure, and deem it a duty to lend
their aid.

It has, however, been found, not without a certain satisfaction,
in looking through from sixt}^ to seventy periodicals, representing
the United States and almost every country in Europe, that but
few of them equal in interest and in practical character our
" Minutes of Proceedings." There is, however, an amount of
information to be gathered from them, more than sufficient to
fill the 120 pages which it is proposed to devote to this section.
Every pains will be taken to include in these pages correct
abstracts of the scientific memoirs which have rendered the
foreign academies and their theoretical writers so justly cele-
brated.

Catalogue of Engineering Information.

Doubtless many members know that there has lately been com-
pleted, under the auspices of the Eoyal Society, an elaborate
" Catalogue of Scientific Papers," consisting of those published
from 1800 to 1863, in all parts of the world. This work is
acknowledged to be of the greatest utility; and it may be well
to ascertain whether something analogous, but confined to in-
formation on engineering subjects, cannot be undertaken with
advantage.

A catalogue of the Library, as well as a classified index to the
"Minutes of Proceedings," already exist, but, from not being
sufficiently general, neither answers fully the purpose intended.
Engineers in practice are aAvare how often occasions occur when
it would be very useful to know what has been done in certain
cases, or the amount and kind of information on record in regard to
particular subjects ; but in the vast and ever-increasing mass of
engineering literature, a search for such data without guidance
is almost hopeless. In these cases a comprehensive catalogue of
the kind referred to woiild be invaluable.

I ANNUAL REPORT. 173

The compilation of a work like this would involve expenditure
both of time and of money, and the arrangements for it would
requii'o careful consideration ; but the Council think the object is
well worthy the attention of their successors in office.

Conclusion.

To represent the ever-widening fields of industries now flourish-
ing, many of them undreamt of in the days of our founders, various
societies have from time to time been established for the study of
special branches of engineering science and practice. The In-
stitution of Mechanical Engineers, the Institution of Civil En-
gineers of Ireland, the North of England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers, the Institution of Engineers in Scotland,
the Iron and Steel Institute, the Institution of Naval Architects,
the Society of Telegraph Engineers, and others that might be
named, come under this category. The headquarters of the
majority are in the provinces, while a few hold their meetings in
Lcmdon.

The existence of these societies, each occupying different ground,
furnishes significant evidence of the growth of the profession ; and
the Council, have felt it a duty to aid them, by granting the use
of the rooms for their meetings, and by any other friendly offices.
But, at no very distant time, the question may arise, whether
some plan cannot be devised, by which there shall be a still closer
tie between these societies, and the oldest association connected
with the profession — The Institution of Civil Engineers.

[Abstract

174 ANNUAL HEPORT.

ABSTEACT of EECEIPTS and EXPENDITURE

EECEIPTS.
Br. . £. s. d. £. s. 'd.
To Balance in the hands of the Treasurer 279 10 6

— Subscriptions and Fees : —

Arraars 217 7 0

Current .* . 6,361 2 0

Subscriptions in advance 38 12 0

Life Compositions 387 19 6

Fees 589 1 0

7,594 1 6

-^ Building Fund 939 15 0

— Publication Fund 162 4 0

• — Publications : — Sale of Transactions 68 9 5

— Telford Fund :—

Dividends, 1 Year, on £2,839 10s. 6d., Three) oi r k

per Cent. Consols / «* -> 5

Ditto. 1 Year, on £2,586 Os. lid., Three perl ^,, , -

Cent. Annuities / '» i^o 6

Ditto, 1 Year, on £2,377 10s. M., Three per"! ^„ ,^

Cent. Consols (Unexpended Dividends) . ./ ' "^

Ditto, 1 Year on £692 17s. 7d., Annuities (Ditto,) oa n <

ditto) / ^0 11 1

252 4 1

— Manby Donation : —

Dividends, 1 Year, on £200, Great Eastern!

Railway Co., Norfolk, Five per Cent. Pre-> 9 17 8

ference Stock J

— Miller Fund : —

Dividends, 1 Year, on £2,000, Lancashire andj

Yorkshire Railway Four per Cent. Debenture > 79 1 8 '

Stock )

Ditto, 1 Year, on £1,100. Great Eastern Ditto . 43 9 11
Ditto, 1 Year, on £582 18». 6d., Three per Cent.l 17 f q

Consols (Unexpended Dividends) . . . ./
Ditto, 1 Year, on £993 13s. 3(i., Annuities (Ditto,\ oq in o

ditto) / -J J" ^

169 8 1

— Howard Bequest : —

Dividends, 1 Year, on £551 lis. Gd., New Three\ , , _ _

per Cents / 10/7

— Institution Investments : —

Dividends, 1 Year, on £3,650, Great Eastern"! -iii /. c

Railway Four per Cent. Debenture Stock. ./ ^'^* ^ ^

Ditto, 6 Months, on £2,500, London and North ) j.a '- p

Western Ditto / ^-^ ' »

Ditto, 6 Months, ou £3,000, Ditto, ditto. . . 57 2 6

Ditto, 6 Months, on £1,000, London, Brighton, ) in in

and South Coast Ditto i ly IS 0

Ditto, 6 Months on £1,500, Ditto, ditto ... 29 13 9

Ditto, 1 Year, on £3,000, North Eastern Ditto . 118 12 6

Ditto, 6 Months,on £2,250, Great Northern Ditto 44 8 9

Ditto, 6 Months, on £3,000, Ditto, ditto. . . 59 7 6

Canied forward . . £522 13 11 £9,491 17 10

ANNUAL REPORT. 175

from tie 1st DEC, 1873, to the 30 ru NOV., 1874.

PAYMENTS.
Cr. £. «. d. £. g. fj.

By Balance due to the Secretary lUlT

— House, Great George Street, for Rent, &c. : —

Repairs 71 10 11

Rent 650 G 10

Rates and Taxes 65 14 3

Insurance 30 6 6

Furniture 14 18 3

832 16 9

— Salaries 1,300 0 0

— Clerks, IMcssengers, and Housekeeper 491 17 0

— Donation to late Housekeeper 30 0 0

— Postage and Parcels : —

Postage 84 2 10

Parcels 2 18 9

87 1 7

— Stationery, Engraving, Printing Cards, Circulars, &c. . . . 229 13 7

— Light and Fuel : —

Coal and coke 49 6 6

Candles 0 2 0

Gas 50 15 4

Water for Engine 4 2 0

104 5 10

— Tea and Coffee 29 12 9

— Library : —

Books 190 7 2

Periodicals 32 9 0

Binding Books 47 17 5

270 13 7

— Publication, IMimites of Proceedings 3,115 18 0

— Telfonl Premiums 160 16 5

— Watt Medals 726

— IManby Premium 25 0 0

— Miller Prizes ... 54 13 3

— Diplomas 31 14 4

— Manuscripts, Original Papers, and Drawings 6 10 2

— Annual Dinner (Official Invitations, &c.) 124 8 10

— Winding and Repairing Clocks 3 12 0

— Incidental Expenses : —

Christmas Gifts 115 6

Assistance at Ordinary Meetings . 10 4 0

Ditto at Students' Meetings . . 3 15 0

Beating Carpets and Sweeping) -i r n

Chimneys f 1 0 U

Household Utensils, Repairs, and) oi -7 o

Expenses ( ^^ ' ^

108 7 9

Carried. forward . . . £7,030 8 11

176 ANNUAL EEPOKT.

ABSTEACT of EECEIPTS and EXPENDITUEE

EECEIPTS— coHi.
Br. £. s. d. £. s. d.

Brought forward . . 522 13 11 9,491 17 10
To Institution Investments : — cont.

Dividends, 1 Year, on £1,500, London, Brighton,!

and South Coast Eailway Four and a Halt'> 66 14 7

per Cent. Debenture Stock )

Ditto, 1 Year, on £1,000, Manchester, Sheffield,! 44 9 s

and Lincolnshire Ditto, ditto /

Ditto, 6 Months, on £1,000, Lancashire and!

Yorkshire Eailway Four per Cent. Debenture) 19 15 10

Stock I

Ditto, 1 Year, on £1,344 Is. 8c?., New Three per j qq iq q

Cents /

693 12 0

— Donations to Library 33 4 0

10,218 13 10

— Telford Fund, Further Capital Sum from Executors 14 11 8

— Telford Premiums, Eepayment of Extra Cost ofl 9S 0 6

Binding J

— Manby Premium, ditto 15 0 0

52 12 2

— Benevolent Fund Disbursements, 1873 9 7 10

— Balance of Petty Cash, Nov. 30, 1874, due to the Secretary . . 18 11

£10,282 2 9

ANNUAL REPORT.

from the 1st DEC, 1873, to the SOth NOV., 1874.

177

Cr.

PAYMENTS-con<.

i. «.

Brought forward 7,030 8 11

By Beuevolent Fund Disbursements, 1874

— Telford Fund. — Further Amount received from

the Executors of the late Tiiomas Telford,
invested in £15 15s. lOd., Three per Cent.
Annuities .

— Ditto, ditto. — Balance of Income not yet ex-

pended in Annual Premiums, invested iu
£55 10s. 9cZ., Tliree per Cent. Annuities . , )

— Miller Fund. — Balance of Income not yet ex- 1

pended in Annual Prizes, invested in|
£136 18s. M., Three per Cent. Annuities . )

12 8 1

14 11 8

51 2 0
125 19 1

Institution Investments : —

£7r)0, Great Northern Railway, Four per'l

Cent. Debenture Stock j

£500, Loudon and North Western Ditto,\

ditto /

£500, London, Brighton and South Coast i ^/lo - n

Ditto, ditto / -JOS 0 0

£1,000, Lancashire and Yorkshire Ditto,! , ^„, q ^

ditto / ^'"^^ ^ "

7G6 3 8
510 0 0

— Balance Nov. 30, 1874, in the hands of the Treasurer

Examined and found correct.

2,997 10 11
241 14 10

£10,282 2 9

(Signed) ALFRED RUMBALL,

Acting: for Wsi. Lloyd, ] Auditors.

JOHN THORNHILL HARRISON. )

JAMES FORREST, Secretary.

December ith, 1874.

[1874-75. N.S.]

178 PREMIUMS AWARDED.

PEEMIUMS AWAEDED.

Session 1873-74.

The Council of The Institution of Civil Engineers have awarded
the following Premiums : —

1. A Telford Medal, and a Telford Premium, to Bindon Blood

Stoney, M.A., M. Inst. C.E., for his Paper " On the Con-
struction of Harbour and Marine Works with Artificial
lilocks of Large Size."

2. A Telford Medal, and a Telford Premium, to Eichard Chris-

topher Eapier, Assoc. Inst. C.E., for his Paper " On the Fixed
Signals of Eailways."

3. A Telford Medal, and a Telford Premium, to Joseph Prestwich,

F.E.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E., for his Paper " On the Geological
Conditions affecting the Construction of a Tunnel between
England and France."

4. A Watt Medal, and a Telford Premium, to Alexander Carnegie

Kirk, Assoc. Inst. C.E., for his Paper " On the Mechanical
Production of Cold."

5. A ^Vatt Medal, and a Telford Premium, to George Wightwick

Eendel, M. Inst. C.E., for his Paper on " Gun-Carriages and
Mechanical Appliances for working Heavy Ordnance."

C. The Manby Premium to Leveson Francis Vernon-Harcourt,
M.A., M. Inst. C.E., for his " Account of the Construction
and Maintenance of the Harbour at Braye Bay, Alderney."

7. A Telford Premium to Major James Browne, E.E., Assoc.

Inst. C.E., for his Paper " On the Tracing and Construction
of Eoads in Mountainous Tropical Countries."

8. A Telford Premium to William Douglass, M. Inst. C.E., for his

Paper on " The Great Basses Lighthouse, Ceylon."

9. A Telford Premium to Joseph McCarthy Meadows, for his

Paper on " Peat Fuel Machinery."

PREMIUMS AWARDED. 179

TuE Council have likewise awarded the following Prizes to
Students of the Institution : —

1. A Miller Prize to James Charles Inglis, Stud. Inst. C.E., for

his Paper on " Theory and Practice in the Construction of
Tanks."

2. A Miller Prize to Matthew Curry, jun., Stud. Inst. C.E., for

his Paper on " The Lisbon Steam Tramway."

o. A Miller Prize to Walter Young Armstrong, Stud. Inst. C.E.,
for his Paper "On the Construction of, and the Means
employed to place in Position, the Cylinders of a Bridge
over the Wye, at Monmouth."

4. A Miller Prize to Charles Graham Smith, Stud. Inst. C.E.,
for his Paper on " Practical Ironwork."

o. A Miller Prize to Alfred Fyson, Stud. Inst. C.E., for his Paper
on " Details in the Construction of Docks."

0, A Miller Prize to George Edward Page, Stud. Inst. C.E., for
his Paper on " Coal Gas and its Manufacture."

Notice.

It has frequently occurred that in Papers which have been con-
sidered deserving of being read and published, and have even
had Premiums awarded to them, the Authors may have advanced
somewhat doubtful theories, or may have arrived at conclusions
at vBiriance wdth received opinions. The Council would, there-
fore emphatically repeat, that the Institution must not, as a
body, be considered responsible for the facts and opinions ad-
vanced in the Papers or in the consequent Discussions ; and
it must be understood, that such Papers may have ^ledals and
Premiums awarded to them, on account of the Science, Talent,
or Industry displayed in the consideration of the subject, and for
the good which may be expected to result from the discussion
and the inquiry ; but that such notice, or award, must not be
considered as any expression of opinion, on the part of the
Institution, of the correctness of any of the views entertained
by the Authors of the Papers.

N 2

180 SUBJECTS FOR PAPERS.

SUBJECTS FOR PAPERS.

Session 1874-75.

The Council of The Institution of Civil Engineers invite commu-
nications, of a complete and comprehensive character, on any of
the Subjects included in the following list, as well as on other
analogous questions. For approved Original Communications,
the Council will he prepared to award Premiums, arising out of
special Funds bequeathed for the purpose, the particulars of
which are as under : —

1. The Telford Fund, given "in trust, the Interest to be ex-
pended in Annual Premiums, under the direction of the Council."
This bequest (with accumulations of dividends) now produces
about £250 annually.

2. The Manby Donation, given " to form a Fund for an Annual
Premium or Premiums for Papers read at the meetings," of the
value of £10 a year.

8. The Miller Fund, bequeathed by the testator "for the
purpose of forming a Fund for providing Premiums or Prizes for
the Students of the said Institution, upon the principle of the
' Telford Fund.' " This Fund (with accumulations of dividends)
now realises nearly £165 per annum. Out of this Fund the
Council have determined to establish a series of Scholarships, —
to be called " The Miller Scholarships of the Institution of Civil
Engineers," — for Papers from Students, and to award one sucli
Scholarship, not exceeding £40 in value, each year, and tenable
for three years.

4. The Howard Bequest, directed by the testator to be applied
"for the purpose of presenting periodically a Prize or Medal to
the author of a treatise on an}^ of the uses or properties of iron, or
to the inventor of some new and valuable j^rocess relating thereto,
such author or inventor being a Member, Graduate, or Associate
of the said Institution." The income amounts to upwards of £16.
It is proposed to award this prize every five years, commencing
in 1877.

SUBJECTS FOR PAPERS. 181

The Council will not, in any case, make an award unless a com-
munication of adequate merit is received ; but, on the other
hand, more than one Premium will be given, if there are several
deserving memoirs on the same subject. In the adjudication of
the Premiums no distinction will be made between essays re-
ceived from a Member, an Associate, or a Student of the Institu-
tion (except in the cases of the Miller and the Howard bequests,
which are limited by the donors), or from any other person,
whether a Native or a Foreigner.

List.

1. On the Flow of Fluids and Gases.

2. On Portable Apparatus for Gauging the Materials, and for

the Expeditious Mixing of large quantities, of Portland
Cement Concrete.
o. On the \'alue and Strength of the different IMaterials used
for making Concrete : comparing, for example, Portland
cement with hydraulic lime, shingle with iron slag or
quarry rubbish, coarse river with fine sea sand, together
with Experiments on the Proper Proportions of each, and
of the Water, whether salt or fresh, to produce the Strongest
Mixture.

4. On the Manufacture as now practised of Iron and Steel of

various qualities ; on the effect on the Strength and
Tenacity of the Metal of the Admixture of Foreign Sub-
stances ; on the various Experimental Tests by which the
Quality may be ascertained ; and on the effects of extreme
Temperatures on Metals.

5. On the Process of Forging by the Hydraulic Press, and on

Effects of Pressure on Cast Steel in the mould.

6. On the Kesults of Experience in the recent Extended Use of

Steel in Mechanism and in works of Engineering.

7. On the Construction of Warehouses and other buildings for

storing Goods, with the Special View of resisting Fire, and
on the relative Merits of brickwork, iron, and timber for
that object.

8. On the Construction of Street Tramwaj-s, the best means of

adapting them for the conveyance of passenger and goods
traffic, and the best method of avoiding evil and incon-
venience to other carriages travelling on the same roads.

9. On Modern Methods of Constructing the Foundations of

Bridges.

182 SUBJECTS FOR PAPEBS.

10. On Viaducts with Metallic Arches of Large Span, considered

"with special reference to the Strains resulting from changes
in Temperature, and Structural Provisions for reducing or
eliminating such Strains.

11. On the Design, generally, of Iron Bridges of very large span,

for Eailway traffic; and on the Comparative Merits of
European and American Wrought-Iron Eailway Bridges.

1 2. On Dock Gates and Caissons, including a Description of the

requisite external and internal arrangements, with recent
practical examples.

13. On the Appliances and Methods used for 'Tunnel Driving,'

Eock-horing, and Blasting in this country and abroad,
with details of the cost and of the results attained.

14. On the Permanent Way of the Eailways of 1874, and the

extent of its identity with the Permanent Way of 1834, in
respect to the rails, fastenings, and sleepers generally ; with
statistical tables showing the length of road laid with the
double-headed chair rail and the flat-footed rail in different
countries at the present time.

15. On the Block Systems of Signalling on Eailways, and on Means

of Communication with trains in Motion.

16. On Sorting Sidings for Eailway Trains.

1 7. On the Constant Service of Water Supply, with special refer-

ence to its introduction into the Metropolis, in substitution
for the Intermittent System ; and on the Waste of Water,
and the best apparatus for its prevention.

18. On the various Modes of Dealing with Sewage, either for its

disposal or its utilisation.

19. A History of any Fresh- Water Channel, Tidal Eiver, or

Estuary,^accompanied by plans and longitudinal and cross
sections of the same, at various periods, showing the altera-
tions in its condition,^ — including notices of any works that
may have been executed upon it, and of the effect of the
works.

20. On the relative Value of Upland and of Tidal Waters in main-

taining rivers, estuaries and harbours.

21. On the System of Eiver and Canal Towage in use on the

Continent of Europe.

22. On Eecent Improvements in the Construction of Steam Boilers

adapted for very High Pressures.

23. On the best practical Use of Steam in Steam Engines, and on

the effects of the various modes of producing Condensation.

24. On the Eesults of Experiments on Steam Jacketing.

SUBJECTS FOR PAPERS. 183

25. On the Modern Construction of Marine Engines, having refer-

ence to Economy of the Working Expenses, by Super-
heating, Surface Condensing, High Pressure, great Expan-
sion, &c.

26. On the Construction of Portahle Steam Engines, or other

Motors, of very light weight, suitable for boats, aerial
machines, &c.

27. On the relative Cost of the Conveyance of Coal by Eail and by

Steamer.

28. On the various descriptions of Pumps employed for Eaising

Water or Sewage, and their relative efficiency.

29. On the employment of Water as a Motive Power, its relative

advantages and disadvantages compared with Steam Power,
and the Hydiaulic Motors most suitable for utilising the
power in the best manner,
oO. On the best Methods of Eemoving Grain in bulk from a Ship
to a Warehouse, for distributing in the Warehouse, and on
the various modes in which grain is stored in bulk.

31. On the Methods of transmitting Force to distant points; and

on the Details of the existing systems of Rope Transmission.

32. On the Present State of Science with regard to the Manufacture,

Purification, and Distribution of Coal Gas.

33. On the Manufacture of Mineral Oils, and the Lamps best

adapted for their consumption in dwellings and lighthouses.

34. On the ' Output ' of Coal in the United Kingdom, as compared

with that of other countries, illustrated by statistical tables,
plans, and diagrams, showing where Coal is produced, and
where and how it is consumed.

35. On the Sinking to, and Machinery applied at, deep Coal Mines

(in Saxony, for instance), with a notice of the modifications
necessary in future Coal Mining Operations suggested (or
indicated) by the working of deep sinkings.

36. On Compressed Air as a Motive Power for Machinery in Mines,

with some account of its application on the Continent.

37. On the Dressing of Lead, Copper, and other Ores by any other

process than that of Water.

38. On the Smelting of the Ores of Lead, Copper, Zinc, and Tin,

with details of the results and cost by different methods.

39. On Pneumatic Telegraphs, and on Pneumatic Despatch Tubes,

designed with a view to economical working, and to the
attainment of high speeds in long lengths of pipe.

40. On recent Progress in Telegraphy, including a notice of the

theoretical and practical data on which that progress has

184 SUBJECTS rOR PAPERS.

teen "based, with some account of the improvements in the-

construction

instruments

construction of land and sea lines and in the working

Instructions for Preparing Communications.

The Communications should be written in the impersonal pro-
noun, and be legibly transcribed on foolscap paper, on the one
side only, leaving a sufficient margin on the left side, in order
that the sheets may be bound. A concise abstract must accom-
pany every Paper.

The Drawings should be on mounted paper, and with as many
details as may be necessary to illustrate the subject. Enlarged
Diagrams, to such a scale that they may be clearly visible when
suspended in the Theatre of the Institution, should be sent for the
illustration of particular portions.

Papers which have been read at the Meetings of other Societies,
or have been published in any form, cannot be read at a Meeting of
the Institution, nor be admitted to competition for the Premiums.

The communications must be forwarded, on or before the 31st
of December, 1874, to the house of the Institution, No. 25, Great
George Street, Westminster, S.W., where any further information
may be obtained.

Charles Manby, Honorary Secretary,
James Forrest, Secretary.

The Institution of Civil Engineers,

25, Great George Street, Westminster, S. W.,
1th July, 1874.

Excerpt Bye-Laws, Section XV., Clause 3.

" Every Paper, Map, Plan, Drawing, or Model presented to the
Institution shall be considered the property thereof, unless there
shall have been some previous arrangement to the contrary, and
the Council may publish the same, in any way and at any time
they may think proper. But should the Council refuse, or delay
the publication of such Paper beyond a reasonable time, the
Author thereof shall have a right to copy the same, and to publish
it as he may think fit, having previously given notice, in writing,
to the Secretary of his intention. No person shall publish, or give
his consent for the publication of any communication presented
and belonging to the Institution, without the previous consent of
the Council."

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. 185

OEIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS

KECEIVKD BETWEEN DECEMBER 1st, 1873, AND NOVEMBER 30tu.

1874.

AUTHORS.

Binnie, A. E. No. 1,398. — The Nagpiir Waterworks : witliObser-
Tations on the Eainfall, the Flow from the Ground, and
Evaporation at Nagpiir ; and on the Fluctuation of Eain-
fall in India and in other places.

Cay, W. D. No. 1,389. — The New South Breakwater at Aberdeen.

Chessliire, E. No. 1,392. — The Disposal and Utilisation of Sewage.

Collen, H. No. 1,408. — Barometric Pressure, a Mechanical Force?

Colson, C. No. 1,400. — Details of the "Working Tests, and Obser-
vations on Portland Cement, made during the Con-
struction of the Portsmouth Dockyard Extension Works.

Cooke, G. C. No. 1,402, — On Practical Methods of Determining
the Waterway to be provided in crossing the drainage on
long slopes leading to Indian Elvers.

Cross-Buchanan, W. No. 1,380. — Descrii^tion of the Southern
Eailway of Chili.

Cudworth, W. No. 1,406. — On Sidings for Sorting Eailway Trains
by Gravitation.

Dawnay, A. D. No. 1,386. — On the Eeconstruction of a Low Breast
Vertical Water-wheel at Molewood Mill, Bengeo, Herts.

Donaldson, W. No. 1,388. — Principles of Construction and Ef-
ficiency of Water-wheels and Turbines.

Douglass, W. No. 1,394. — The Great Basses Lighthouse, Ceylon.

Gaudard, J. No. 1,405. — Notes on certain works in Switzerland,
and on various Questions of Theory.

Greaves, C. No. 1,409. — On Natural or Atmospheric Evaporation
from the surfaces of Land and Water ; with considerations
on the Fall and Percolation of Eain through Earth and
Sand.

Gruningen, 0. No. 1,399. — The Mount Washington Eailway.

Jones, H. E. No. 1,407. — The Construction of Gasworks.

Keeling, G. W. No. 1,404.— On the Blasting of Eock below Water
with D^-namite.

186 LIST OF DONORS TO THE LIBRART.

AUTHORS.

Martin, J. No. 1,380a. — On the various modes of dealing with

Sewage for its Disposal and Utilisation.
M'Cosh, Dr. No. 1,390. — On a new Floating Breakwater.
JVIcNanght, W. No. 1,387.— On Simple and Compound Engines.
Meadows, J. M'C. No. 1,384. — Vent Fuel Machinery.
Pilbrow, J. No. 1,383. — On the Separate System of Sewering ; and

its first application to the district of Tottenham, Middlesex,
rrestwich, J. No. 1,403.— On the Origin of the Chesil Bank ; and

on the relation of the existing beaches to past geological

changes independent of the present coast action,
liapier, K. C No. 1,393. — On the Fixed Signals of Eailways.
Eendel, G. W. No. 1,385. — Gun-Carriages and Mechanical Ap-
pliances for working Heavy Ordnance.
Eoff, G. L. No. 1,391.— The Extension of the South Jetty at

Kustendjie, Turkey.
Scott, W. H. No. 1,381. — Notes on Mines fired near Bombay,

1866 to 1868.
-Stone, C. No. 1,401. — The Implements employed, and the Stone

Protection adopted, in the Eeconstruction of the Bridges

on the Delhi railway.
A^idler, M. No. 1,382.— Hints on the Failure of Brickwork.
Wilson, A. F. No. 1,396.— On the Destructive Distillation of

Coal.

LIST OF DONORS TO THE LIBRARY.

From December 1, 1873, to November 30, 1874.

Academy of Sciences of Munich ; Addy, J. ; Admiralty ; Agent
General for Victoria ; Aitken, E. ; Allan, A. ; American Academy
of Arts and Sciences ; American Institute of Mining Engineers ;
American Society of Civil Engineers ; Amiot, M. ; Anstie, J. ;
Archer, W. H. ; Architectural Association ; Association of Civil
Engineers of Portugal; Astronomer Royal; Austrian Society of
Civil Engineers.

Barnard, J. G. ; Barr, General ; Barry, E. M. ; Barry, J. W. ;
Bauerman, H. ; Baynes, J. ; Beaudemoulin, L. A. ; Bertin, E. ;
Binnie, A. R. ; Bolton, Major F. ; Boult, J. ; Bow, R. H. ; Bower, W.;
Bramwell, F. J. ; Brassey, T., M.P. ; Brenan, G. ; British Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science ; British Association of Gas
Managers; Brunei, H. ; Brydges, C. J.; Bulkley, T. A. ; Burgue,
J. de ; Burn E.

LIST OF DONORS TO THE LIBKAKY. 187

Campbell, J. E. ; Campbell, W. D. ; Canadian Government ; Ca-
nadian Institute ; Chabrier, E. ; Cliardanne, V. ; Chemical Society ;
Cialdi, A. ; Civil and Mechanical Engineers' Society ; Clericetti ;
Cleveland Institution of Engineers ; Coke, E. G. ; Colladon, D. ;
Collignon, E. ; Colonial Office ; Cordery, J. G. ; Corporation of
London ; Cotton, C. P. ; Cunningham, Capt. A., E.E.
DawTiay, A. D. ; Deacon, G. F.; Deas, J. ; Delarge, F. ; Dines, G.
Eads, J. B. ; East India Association ; Evans, W. AV.
Falconnet, Capt. G. P. de P., E.E. ; Forge Committee of France ;
Fowler, A. M. ; Fox, Head, and Co. ; Francis, G. ; Franklin Institute,
Philadelphia ; French Association for the Advancement of Science.
Gaudard, J. ; Geological Society ; Geological Survey of Canada ;
Gibbs, E. ; Glasgow University ; Glendining, A. ; Gordon, E. ;
Gore, J. E. ; Government of India ; Government of Western Aus-
tralia ; Grantham, J. ; Grantham, E. B. ; Great Seal Patent Office ;
Greaves, C. ; Greenhill, T. A. ; Grover, J. W. ; Gunesch, E. ;
Gzowski, C. S.

Hallauer, 0. ; Handyside, H. ; Harrison, T. E. ; Hartig, Dr. E, ;
Ilaughton, B. ; Hayden, F. V. ; Haywood, W. ; Ilenwood, C. ; Hig-
ginson, J. P.; Hildebrandt, A.; Homersham, S. C. ; Hoseason,
Capt. J. C, E.N. ; Howard, W. F. ; Hungarian Society of
Engineers,

Industrial Society of Mulhausen ; Institution of Architects and
Engineers of Hanover ; Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders
in Scotland ; Institution of Mechanical Engineers ; Institution of
Naval Architects ; Institution of Surveyors ; Iron and Steel
Institute.

Janson, M. A. ; Johnson, S. A.

Keating, E. ; Keystone Bridge Company ; King's College, Nova
Scotia ; Knowles, Sir F. C, Bart.

Leloutre, M. G. ; Letheby, Dr. ; Liverpool Polytechnic Society ;
London Association of Foreman Engineers; Lovegrove, J. ; Lucas, J.
Macmillan, Messrs.; Macrea, J.; Malezieux, E. ; Manby, C. ;
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society ; Manchester Steam
Users Association ; Mast, G. C. ; McAlpine, J. W. ; McBean, S. ;
Meadows, J. McC. ; Meteorological Office ; Meteorological Society ;
Metropolitan Gas Eeferees ; Midland Steam Boiler Inspection and
Insurance Company ; Millar, J. ; Millar, J. M. ; Muirhead, H. D.

National Boiler Insurance Company (Limited) ; New Zealand
Government ; Newbigging, F. ; North, E. F. ; North of England
Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers; Nystrom, J. W.
Orsat, H. ; Owens College, Manchester.
Parkes, W. ; Patent Selenitic Cement Company ; Phillips, J. A. ;

188 LIST OF DONORS TO THE LIBRARY. j

I'imentel, J. G. ; Pontzen, E. ; Preece, W. H. ; Price, W. H. ; Pro- j
prietors of Annales Industrielles, Applied Science, Architect, Archi- i
tect and Surveyor, Athenaeum, Builder, Engineer, Engineering,
Engineering and Mining Journal, Iron, Iron and Coal Trade Review, I
Iron Trade Circular, Journal of Gaslighting, London, Edinburgh,
and Philosophical Magazine, Eevista Minera, Telegraphic Journal,
Universal Review of Mining.

Quinette-de-Eochemont, the Baron E. T, ; Eeade, T. M. ; Regis-
trar-General of Victoria ; Revy, J. J. ; Richardson, W. and W. C. ;
Ricketts, A. ; Robertson, G. ; Rosenbusch, E. ; Royal Academy of
Brussels ; Royal Agricultural Society of England ; Royal Artillery
Institution ; Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal ; Royal Geographical
Society ; Royal Institute of British Architects ; Royal Institution
of Engineers of Holland; Royal Institution of Great Britain:
L'oyal National Lifeboat Institution ; Roj^al School of Engineei'S,
Turin ; Royal Scottish Society of Arts ; Royal Society of Edin-
burgh ; Royal Society of London ; Royal Society of Victoria ;
Royal United Service Institution.

Salter, F. ; Sassoon Mechanic Institute ; School of Bridges and
Roads of France ; School of Military Engineering, Chatham ;
School of Mines of France ; Scientific Industrial Society of Mar-
seilles ; Scott, M. ; Scott, R. H. ; Scott's Sewage Company ; Shedd,
J. H. ; Siccama, H. T. H. ; Simpson, Capt. E. ; Smithsonian Insti-
tution ; Smyth, E. B. ; Society of Arts ; Society of Civil Engineers
of France ; Society of Engineers ; Society of Engineers and Archi-
tects of Saxony ; Society of Telegraph Engineers ; South Austra-
lian Government ; South Wales Institute of Engineers ; Spon, E.
and F. N . ; Statistical Society ; Stevenson, D. ; Stevenson, T. ;
Stone, C. ; Swan, C. H. ; Swettenham, J. ; Symons, G. J.

Tate, J. S. ; Thomason Civil Engineering College ; Todd, L. ;
Tremaux, P. ; Trevithick, F. ; Trotman, J. ; Tyler, Capt. H. W. ;
Tyrrel, Lieut-Col. F.

United States Corps of Engineers ; United States Naval Ob-
servatory ; United States War Dej^artnient ; University College,
London ; Unwin, W. C.

Van Nostrand, D. ; Victorian Government.

AValdie, D. ; Wardell, W. W. ; Ware, C. E. ; Waring, H. E. ;
Waterhouse, J.

Young, E. W.

LIST OF DONORS TO THE LIBRAKY. 189

Tlie Subscriptions to tlic Libraiy Fund -were as follows : —

£. .S-. d.
A. W. IJiiud 220

T. C. Ellis 220

Col. Hutchinson, IJ.E 2 2 0

W. II. King 3 0 0

\\. K. MacBride 110

William John Adamson Parker. ... 1 1 0

John Arthur Phillips S 3 0

Henry Prince 5 0 0

H. S.'Collette Eee 110

J. C. Simpson 220

John Steell 330

Geo. Thompson 2 2 0

K. G. Underdowu 5 5 0

Total as per Cash Statement . . 33 4 0

[OFFiCKBS.

OFFICER S.— 1874-75.

PRESIDENT.

THOMAS ELLIOT HAREISON.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

William Henry Barlow, F.R.R.,
John Frederic Bateman, F.R.S.,

George Willoughby Hemans,
George Robert Stephenson.

MEMBERS.

James Abebnethy, j James Brunlees,

&VWm.G. Armstrong, C.B.,F.R.S., | <StV John Coode,

Sir Joseph Wm. Bazalgette, C.B., ! William Pole, F.R.S.,

George Berkley,

Frederick Jos. Bramwell, F.R.S.,

George Barclay Bruce,

C. William Siemens, F.R.S.,
Sir Jos. Whitworth, Bt., F.R.S.,
Edward Woods.

ASSOCIATES.

Major John Underwood Bateman-Champain, R.E.,
John Head, | Col. Charles Pasley, R.E.

^onorariT Councillors :

PAST PRESIDENTS.

George Parker Bidder,
Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.S.,
John Fowler,

Charles Hutton Gregory,
Charles Blacker Vignoles, F.R.S.,
Thomas Hawksley.

(IDttitfrs :

AUDITORS.

John Thobnhill Harrison. | Charles Feewer.

TREASURER.

William Matthew Coulthurst.

HONORARY ARCHITECT. HONORARY SECRETARY.

Thomas Henby Wyatt, F.R.LB.A. | Charles Manby, F.E.S.

SECRETARY.

James Forrest.

ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN. VJl

Si:cT. II.— OTHER SELECTED PAPEKS.

No. 1,412. — "Engineering in Sweden." By Christer Peter
Sandbekg, Assoc. Inst. C.E.^

There has now existed for ten years a Society of Engineers,
" Ingeniors Foreningens," in Sweden, with head-quarters at Stock-
holm, where meetings are held every quarter to discuss no^v
schemes and engineering subjects. The society publishes a journal
quarterly, the last number of which, for the second quarter of 1874,
treats mainly of the Papers read and of the discussions that took
place at the previous meeting. The journal gives a description
and drawings of works executed in. Sweden, of machinery, rail-
ways, bridges, architecture, heating, ventilation, water supply, &c.
It likewise includes a resume of foreign engineering works as well
as of foreign engineering literature. The annual subscription of
the members is about £l Is. ; but the journal may be bought by
non-members for, say, 10s. per annum. A fresh administration is
elected or re-elected every year. It consists of a president, vice-
president, six members of council, and a secretary ; the latter, who
is also the editor of the journal and the treasurer, is paid a yearly
salary. The society is in intimate connection with similar institu-
tions in Norway and in Denmark, and is glad to exchange its
publications with them, as well as with engineering associations
outside Scandinavia. Due care is taken in the election of members,
amongst whom are included nearly all the Royal Engineers of the
kingdom.

Engineering in Sweden in old times principally consisted in
canal-making between the numerous lakes and rivers. Foremost
amongst these is the Great Gotha Canal, connecting Stockholm
with Gothenburg by the lakes Wenern and Wetteru. This canal
is of surpassing magnitude and beauty, besides which it has jH-ovcd
an immense boon to industry.

The stagnation, however, of transport during winter necessitated
the construction of railways ; and although the Swedes have been

' The Author having been asked for particulars of tlie progress of Engineeriug
in Sweden, communicated with the Swedish Society of Engineers, as well as
•with several Engineers in Sweden. No reply has yet beeu received, but he
submits the following notes, rather than leave Sweden unrejueseuted in tlie
accounts of foreign Engineering works. — C. P. S.

192

ENGINEEBING IN S^VEDEN.

somewhat slow to commence railways, they have been by no
means slow in covering the south or cultivated half of Sweden
with a network of lines during the last twenty years. This,
therefore, constitutes the principal engineering work of recent
date. Next come the canals, the last executed, that by Baron
Ericson, being called the Dalsland Canal, of which a description
follows. There are, besides, waterworks, erected by Major Eichert.
the town engineer of Gothenburg, in Gothenburg, Norrkoping,
Upsala, and Lund ; but, as a branch of engineering, the greatest
activity is found in the iron trade, in laying out plant for the
production of iron and steel by the Bessemer process from the
famous ore smelted with charcoal.

I. — Eailways.
To treat j&rst of railways, the following is a resume of their
progress up to the end of 1874. There are 2,138 miles open for
traffic, and 1,534 miles under constrixction, which will be com-
pleted in a few years, then making the considerable total of 3,672
miles. Bearing in mind the fact that Sweden is three times as
large as England, with a population not exceeding that of London,
there is a mile of railway actually open to every 1,800 inhabitants,
which is just the same ratio as in England, leaving lines in course
of construction out of account.

AILWAYS OPEN

FOR Traffic.

Miles.

;\iiifs

State railways .

S97

Gange 4 ft.

Uddevalla - Weners-

Koping Hult

8 J inches,

borg-Heriljunga .

Gefle-Dala . .

lieavy con-

BorSs-Herrljuiiga

Swedish Central

6lJ

struction.

Wickern-Mockeln .

Halsberg - Motala

Karl shamn-Wislanda

Mjolby . .

Palsboda-Finspong .

Karlskroiia Wexio

IMariestad-Moliolm .

Kalmar Emmaboda

.35

Wessman- Barken

Landskrona-Hel sing

Mn rma-Sandarna

Narrow

borg . . .

Solvesborg - Kristian-

* saupre.

Ystad Eslof . . .

stad ....

D O

Kristianstad -Hessle

Gauge 4 ft.
8^ inches,

Hjo-Stenstorp

holm . . . .

Wadstena-Fogelstad

Wexio Alfvesta .

light con-

Lidkoping - Skara -

Nora Karlskoga .

struction.

Stenstorp .

Krylbo Norberg

1-2

Ulricehamn-Wartofta

Nassjo Oscarshamn

Sundsvall Torps-

Upsala Gefle

hammar .

Helsingborg Hessle

Sundry small lines .

117,

holm . . .

. 47

IMalmo Y.-tad .

. 40

Total . .

483

Sundry small lines

Total .

1 .055

ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN.

193

Lines in -course of Construction.

State railways
Bergslagemas
State railways
Stockholm-Wcsteras .
Flen Oxelosund Eskilstuna
Linkoping Gamlcby .
Ostra Werinland .
Halnistad-N'assjo .
Landscrona BjornkiiUa .
Lund Trelleborg .
Nybro Safsjostrom
Sala Tillberga . . .
Helsingborg Gothenburg.

Dalsland

Simdry small lines

Total .

Miles.

27|
366/
382
130
100

17
132

66^

Gauge 4 feet 8^ inches, jjeavy
construction.

Gauge 4 feet 8^ inches, light
construction.

1,534

These railways may be thus divided : —

Grauge 4 feet Sj inches (heavy construction) .
„ „ (light construction)

Narrow gauge

Total

[ilrs.

,462

,727

483

,672

These railways are divided into three classes, according to the
manner of their construction and the work they have to do.
First, there are at present open 1,069 miles of 4 feet 8^ inches
gauge, of heavy construction, i.e., with flange rails weighing 60 lbs.
to 70 lbs. per yard, engines of about 33 tons, and an average speed
of 30 miles per hour for express trains, stoppages included. It
must, however, be stated that the speed is reduced in winter, on
account of the severe climate, for safety as well as for economy in
wear of permanent way and rolling stock. The chief examples of
this class are the government lines, forming the greater portion,
the most minute details of the construction of which may be found
in the splendid work published by the Eoyal Administration, and
of which a copy is in the library of the Institution.^ The average
cost of the government lines has been £7,000 per mile of single
line, including rolling stock ; the steepest gradients are 1 in 100,

* Vide " Royaume de Suede. Atlas des Constructions et du Materiel des
Chemins de fer de I'e'tat." Vol. i. Folio. Stockholm, 1870.

[1874-75. N.S.] O

194 ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN.

the curves are not telow 1,000 feet radius, and very few are undei
2,000 feet.

In the second class there are open 586 miles of the same gauge
hut of lighter construction, i.e., the rails are from 40 lbs. to 60 lbs.
per yard, the engines and rolling stock are lighter, but the
gradients and curves are the same, with few exceptions ; the speed
attained on these lines is reduced to, say, an average of 23 miles
per hour for the quickest trains. The average cost of this class
has been about £4,000 per mile of single line, equipped with the
necessary rolling stock.

Lastly, there are open 483 miles varying in gauge from 2i feet
to 4 feet, with rails weighing 20 lbs. to 45 lbs. per yard, and
rolling stock in proportion. There is a greater variation in the
curves and gradients, and the speed is diminished, say to 15 miles
per hour, the average of the quickest trains. The cost of this
class of line has ranged between £2,000 and £3,000 per mile of" .
single line, rolling stock included.

As regards lines in course of construction the following points
may be noticed. There are only in the first class about 393 miles,
in the second class 1,141 miles, whilst the third class, or the narrow-
gauge lines, are hardly worth mentioning. Of the 393 miles in
the first class, the main part is a line for heavy traffic, viz., the
Bergslagernas railway, from Gothenburg to Falun, with only a
small mileage to complete the government system in the middle of
the country. The great main-line system of the south and centre,
which are the most populated districts, is now complete.

Of the 1,141 miles in the second class the principal section is
the north government line, then the Stockholm Westeras railway,
running into the mining districts, and about nine other lines
which may be considered as feeders to the present main-line
system, all of the full gauge with as heavy construction as their
finances will allow. That the break of gauge has proved disad-
vantageous, is shown by the fact, that of the third or narrow-
gauge class there are few examples in course of construction, and
scarcely any are contemplated, except eight or ten unconnected
local lines, chiefly for mineral traffic, and together about 150 miles
in length.

The necessity of economy in the construction of railways
strongly forced itself into notice ten years ago, and resulted in
the narrow-gauge lines now made. In 1870, however, the debate
in the Swedish parliament^ ended in strong opposition to this

' Vide "Engineering," July 1860 and February 21, 1873.

ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN. 195

break of gauge. This gained ground, so that when, in Febniary
1873, the discussion arose at the Institution of Civil Engineers
on the Indian gauge question, the general experience in Sweden
was stated to he in favour of the standard gauge,^ although several
narrow-gauge lines were at the time under construction. Since
then, the railway gauge question may be taken as decided in favour
of the normal 4 feet 8^ inches, by the fact of but few narrow-gauge
lines being projected, and by the adaptation of several narrow-
gauge lines to the standard width.

The above-mentioned north main line, 382 miles long, extend-
ing from the Gefle line along the Baltic coast as far as Sundsvall,
and then crossing Sweden to meet the Norwegian line from the
frontier to Trondjem (Drontheim), was originally proposed to
be of the 3 feet 6 inches gauge, to meet the Norway system, and
to avoid break of gauge between the Baltic and the North Sea.
It is now, however, to be constructed of the standard gauge, with
rails weighing from 50 lbs. to 56 lbs, per yard, enabling the en-
gines of 25 tons to 28 tons, originally ordered for the government
main lines when the traffic was light, to be made use of, whilst
these will be replaced by heavier ones for the south and central
systems, where the increase of traffic requires it. The standard
gauge being adhered to, the Norwegian line from Trondjem to
the frontier is also to be of the 4 feet 8 A- inches gauge. The
present mileage of the 3 feet 6 inches gauge in Norway is only
about 200 miles ; and as this has in some instances proved to be
inadequate in traflSc capacity, it has been thought advisable to
appoint a government commission to consider the question of
gauge before extending that system. Moreover railway communi-
cation of several times that mileage is urgently needed between
the north and the south, and there would be the inconvenience of
break of gauge at Trondjem and at Christiania if the standard
gauge were not adopted.^

In conclusion it should be said that the railway system of

' Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. xxxv., pp. 337 and 520.

- "The Statesman's Year Book" for 1874 gives the mileage of Norwegian
railways open for traflSc as 586 miles, but there is included in this the line from
Christiania to Stockholm, 350 miles, of which only 70 miles belong to Norway,
thus reducing the Norwegian railways to 306 miles. An error is also made in
stating the projected lines at 741 miles, as of the line from Trondjem to Sunds-
vall, 250 miles, only about 50 miles belong to Norway and 200 miles to Sweden,
reducing the total to about 541 miles. In the same publication there is like-
wise an error regarding the cost of Swedish state railways, which is given at
£131,725 per mile, instead of 131,725 rix-doUars, of which eighteen go to the
pound sterling, or £7,318 per mile.

0 2

196 ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN.

Sweden is of immense benefit to the trade of the country and of
the world at large, for the value of the products, principally iron,
corn, and timber, has tripled within the last twenty years. On
the 18th of November, 1874, King Oscar II. opened the last link
of the east main line, and referred in his speech to the credit be-
longing to the Swedish engineers, especially to the originator and
constructor of the line, Baron Nils Ericson, whose death pre-
vented him witnessing on that day the completion of this work.
When, twenty years ago, government had to commence the con-
struction of railways, under the management of Ericson as chief
engineer, they were not expected to pay working expenses ; now,
in addition, they are paying 4 per cent, interest on the capital
expended, and will, it is reckoned, in a short time yield a consider-
able surplus, besides the indirect gain to the country materially
and socially. As nearly all the supplies of fixed and rolling stock
for these railways have been obtained from England, their con-
struction has likewise benefited this country.

II. — Canals.

Travellers in Sweden are generally under the impression, that
there is more water in the country than is good for it. This is
true, for hundreds of small lakes are drained every year, and
valuable land reclaimed for agriculture. On the other hand, few
countries, if any, in Europe possess a greater number of large
lakes and rivers. If these are not all made navigable, it is by
reason of the hard climate shutting them up for four months in
the year.

However, but for the canals and inland water communication,
Sweden would have been quicker to avail herself of railway com-
munication. Before any railways were constructed, canals were
extensively used for steamboat communication in all directions,
as, for instance, across the country by the Gotha Canal through
Lakes Wenern and Wettern, from Stockholm, to Gothenburg, a
distance of about 280 miles ; also to Jonkoping, by Lake Wettern,
in the centre of Sweden, 250 miles, then through Lakes Malar and
Hjelmare to Orebro, 140 miles; as well as for shorter distances
in the north to Upsala and Smedjebacken. These, besides the
coast navigation from the top of the Baltic at Haparanda down
to Stockholm, and all round the coast to Gothenburg, supplied
sufficient means of communication, had it not been for the winters.
Although the inland navigation is suspended during that time of
the year, transport is much facilitated by the use of sledges, a

ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN. 197

horse being then able to draw double the load that it could do on
a common road surface. Besides, the frost and snow open up a
road ever}^vhere ; but when, occasionally, a mild winter produces
little snow, communication is seriously impeded. The severity of
the climate, for canals as well as for railways, is a grave con-
sideration. The frost penetrates the ground 2 feet and more ; and
where drainage is not perfect, the expansion of the water in
freezing disturbs the whole foundation, causing accidents when a
thaw succeeds. Therefore, canals and roads require perfect drain-
age, deeper foundations than usual, and the very best material, such
as granite, of which there is no scarcity in the country. As for
docks and harbours, Sweden offers but little of interest, the rocky
coast with the fjords affording natural harbours in most instances ;
and, as regards tide, a couple of feet, at the utmost, is the difference
of range.

Commencing at the north, the project of a combined railway and
canal communication across Sweden and Norway, from the top of
the Baltic to the Arctic Ocean, has been lately entertained, to render
accessible the immense iron mountain, "Gellivara"; indeed the
canal is in course of execution by an English company. The pro-
ject contemplates making the Lulea river navigable for about
50 miles, and constructing a railway from Norwik to Gellivara,
about an equal distance. The Gellivara mountain is a vast store
of iron ore, containing from 60 to 70 per cent, of metallic iron,
which might thus be carried down the Baltic to England, although
a long way round. As a cheaper and more direct route, a con-
tinuation of the railway is proposed from Gellivara in a northerly
direction over the mountains to the Arctic Ocean at Ofoten fjord
near Tromsoe, on the Norwegian coast, a port always free* of ice.
For, although this port is about 350 miles north of Lulea on the
Baltic, it enjoys a much milder climate, owing to the presence of
the Gulf Stream. Next to ironstone, it is calculated that the
principal traffic will be in fish, chiefly cod, of which on the north
coast there is an abundance. It is estimated that more than one
million fish, weighing 10 lbs. each, and also salt and dried fish,
together about 7,000 tons per annum,* as well as 400,000 tons of
iron ore, may be offered for transport to the Baltic coast. As the
locality is favourable, it is thought that the cost of construction,
rolling stock and entire equipment included, will not exceed

' See Minutes of the Swedish Engineer Society, " Ingcniors Fiireningens,"
1S74, p. 42 ; Paper by Capt. Robert Schough, on a Railway from the Baltic to the
Norwegian coast.

198 ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN.

£1,000,000 sterling. It was the opinion of the Swedish Engineers,
at the meeting on the 27th of February, 1874, that by the canali-
sation of the Lulea river a communication would be opened
throughout the summer to the Baltic, and by railway transit to
the Arctic Sea all the year, so that iron might be brought over the
mountain Kolen to be smelted in England ; and the hope was
expressed that Government would undertake a thorough survey.
So far as the difficulty of climate is concerned, the excessive frost
and dej)th of snow may of course close the line for a short time
during the winter, but it was considered that the traffic might be
maintained during the greater part of the year without much
difficulty.

Numbers of large rivers run parallel with the Lulea, southward
to the Baltic, from the Kolen mountain chain, which separates
Norway from Sweden. These rivers carry timber, in the spring
flood, to the saw-mills, and some rivers are navigable for a con-
siderable distance from the coast without needing extensive canali-
sation.

The canals are mainly in the centre and south, the principal
being the Gotha, the Hjelmare, the Stromsholms, the TroUhatte,
the Sodertelge, the Eskilstuna, the Seffle, and the Dalslands. Of
these the Gotha Canal deserves a special description, as being by
far the most interesting, and the Dalsland, as being the latest
executed.

The Gotha Canal.

This work was planned in 1716 by Swedenborg and Polheim,
and was commenced by Charles XII. ; but all the country's funds
having been wasted by war, the enterprise was stopped for a
long time, and it was only in 1800 that the first part, or the
Trollhiitte Canal, was opened. A few years later Count B. von
Platen pursued the work, and called to his assistance the first
President of The Institution of Civil Engineers, Thomas Telford,
and in less than twenty days the whole line of route was surveyed
and fixed.^ The Gotha Canal Company was formed in 1810, with
Count Platen as chairman. Shares were at once taken up for nearly
a third of a million sterling, whilst Government supported the
undertaking to an equal amount, making the total cost two-thirds
of a million for the whole canal. Most of the work was, however,

' Vide " Illustreradt Sverige," by Gustaf Thome'e, p. 22C. ; also " Life of Thomas
Telford." 4to. Folio atlas of plates. London, 1838, pp. 159-162.

ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN. 199

oxecntcd by soldiers, which lessened the outlay considerably. In
1832 the canal was completed across Sweden, from Stockholm to
Gothenburg. A length of 56 miles was of the following dimen-
sions : —

Feet.

Width at the bottom 48

^Vidth at the surface 90

Depth 10

There are fifty-eight locks, 246 feet long and 24 feet broad,
thirty road bridges, and several culverts, aqueducts, basins, and
repairing docks. The highest point is 308 feet above the sea level,
at a little lake called Wiken, from which there is a descent of
163 feet down to Lake Wenern, the largest in Sweden, having an
area of 2,080 square miles. At the outflow of the lake at Weners-
borg, the Carlsgraf Canal, with two locks and a length of 12,000
feet, avoids the first waterfall into the river Gotha, where, how-
ever, navigation is soon interrupted by the well-known falls of
Trollhatte, 112 feet high, but divided into four different falls. The
canal is here very interesting, being for the most part blasted out
of the granite rock by the side of the waterfalls.

Long before the Gotha Canal was ready, Lake Wenern was in
connection with the west coast through eight small locks, each
L'O feet broad and 3^ feet deep, at Trollhiitte ; but in connection
with the Gotha Canal, Nils Ericson built a set of twelve new
locks, 5 feet deep, and formed a separate company, called the New
Trollliatte Canal Company. After the completion of the new locks
the navigation was accessible to larger vessels, and it was even pro-
posed to open a communication direct between St. Petersburg and
England through the Gotha Canal, but the boats were found to be
too small for the rough passage across the North Sea. About five
thousand sailing vessels and two thousand steamers pass through
this canal yearly, paying dues amounting to £20,000 for the Troll-
hiitte Canal only. At the Gotha Canal the traffic is less, being two
thousand five hundred sailing vessels and one thousand steamers,
and the dues are about £10,000.

The Dalsland Canal.

The eastern spurs of the high range dividing Norway from
Sweden run in the south through the small province of Dalsland,
towards Lake Wcnem, and form numerous valleys, which descend
more or less abruptly to the shore, and serve as channels for many
torrents from the mountain ridges. There are often considerable

200 ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN.

falls, which supply a vast motive power to works of various kinds,
chiefly bar-iron forges and saw-mills. There was one serious
drawback to this industry. Lake Wenern afforded the only
means of communication between Dalsland and the outer world;
and to reach that lake from the various works a long and costly
land transport was the sole resource. This became more and more
an obstacle as increased facilities were developed in other parts of
the world.

Hence, forty years ago, the question of utilising the Dalsland
watercourses as a means of transport was broached, and this was
accomplished in the year 1868. Along the Norwegian frontier,
northward, in the province of Wermland, there is a lake, the Stora
Lee, 20 miles long with an extreme width of 3 miles, which joins
Lake Wenern by a watercourse having eleven continually descend-
ing basins, together constituting a fall of 200 feet. At the
northern extremity of the Stora Lee are the Toksfors works. At
a distance of 12 miles southward, where there is a fall of 28 feet,
are the ironworks of Lennartsfors. At this point the Stora Lee
is joined by Lake Leelangen ; and lower down at the junction with
Lax Lake, motive power is supplied by a fall to the Billingsfors
works. Farther on, towards Lake Wenern, there are the Gus-
tafsfors ironworks and the Skapfors saw-mills, where falls occur,
the highest one being 30 feet at Upperud ironworks.

The Dalsland Canal Share Company having been formed, witk
the Governor of the Province, Count Sparre, as President, the
directors, in 1864, succeeded in engaging the assistance of the late
Baron Nils Ericson, Colonel of Engineers. His plan to some
extent varied from former projects, and comprised the following-
main conditions : the construction of a canal at Hofverud, near
Upperud, instead of a railway, so as to avoid unloading and
reloading ; a route from Lax Lake, past the Billingsfors works, to
Leelangen ; the adoption of the same dimensions for the whole
length of the canal from Upperud to Stora Lee, viz., a depth of
5^ feet, a width of 13 feet at the bottom, and a length of 100 feet
between the lock gates ; and an increase in the number of locks
between Lake Wenern and Stora Lee to twenty -five, instead of
fifteen as j)roposed.

The contract for constructing the canal according to this plan,
including excavations round the fall at Hofverud, and an aqueduct
over the stream at that place, was taken at about £76,000 sterling,
raised chiefly by shares, and to some extent by state subventions. It
was stipulated that the dimensions of the canal should be such that
vessels of 75 feet in length, 13 feet beam, and drawing 5 feet of

ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN. 201

water, slioukl be able to navigate it. Consequently the locks were
mainly of the following dimensions : —

Ft. ins.

Minimum length between the gates 100 0

, , width in the flood gate 110

, , depth of water on the sill 5 2

, , width of the sill 6 0

, , height of the gate wall over the sill ..... 67

, , length of the gate wall 7 0

Kadius of the sill and of the lift wall 16 0

Length of the gate recess 17 0

Kadius , , , , 50 0

Slope of the lock-chamber sides, 5 to 1

Versed sine of the exterior of the inner wall 2 0

outer , , 3 0

> ■) ) J > '

fii

The gate walls and recesses were all constructed with Wargo
cement. The sides of the lock chambers are of masonry in cement,
supported by an earthen embankment. The gates are single, and
have wooden bolts ; the sills are formed of wooden beams, 10 inches
l)y 12 inches. Timber drawbridges are employed throughout,
placed in front of a lock immediately before the recess, or entrance.
The canal is of the following dimensions : —

Ft. ins.
Minimum width at the bottom 13 0

,, depth 5 6

, , height of the bank above water level .... 20

J >

width of the bank at top 8 0

, , tawing path 5 0

slope of the banks, 1 to IJ

At the waterfalls of Hofverud, the most interesting point of this
canal, the rock on one side is almost perpendicular for 150 feet,
while the other side of the stream is occupied by the ironworks of
Hofverud. For this reason Ericson constructed an iron aqueduct
over the fall of 110 feet span. This aqueduct has the form of an open
box. The two sides for carrying the weight are wrought-iron bow
girders, 10 feet deep at the middle and 6i feet at the ends, of
English iron plate, ^ inch thick. The bottom and top flanges are
j inch and f inch thick respectively, formed of three layers of
plates bolted together. The top flange serves as a jiathway as
well. The aqueduct joins the canal at both ends, and is supported
at one end on turned rollers resting on a bed-plate, so as to allow
free contraction and expansion, the other end being fixed. The
aqueduct has a depth of 5^ feet of water, and- weighs when full
200 tons, but with a loaded vessel the structure is calculated to
carry 300 tons. This canal has now been open for traflic for five

202 ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN.

years, and has proved to be of tliorouglily sound and good work-
manship. There are hopes that in course of time it will turn out
as successful financially to the shareholders, as it has already been
beneficial to the province of Dalsland.

III. — Iron-making and Mining.

Sweden and England have been connected from olden times in
this branch of industry, through the one supplying the other with
raw material in the form of bar iron for cast-steel production and
.steel manufactures of the finest description.

The purity of the ores, as well as the use of charcoal for smelt-
ing, has given the superiority to the Swedish iron ; while the
good quality of the coal [and coke, and the abundance of other
materials, such as sandstone, fire-clay, &c., have placed the manu-
facture into finished articles chiefly in Sheffield and some other
districts in England similarly situated.

In early days the exportation from Sweden was limited to bar
iron, the export of pig iron and of iron ore being forbidden, and
a duty was levied on imported iron and machinery. Since the
establishment of free trade on both sides a different state of things
has arisen, and now, not only is bar iron imported, but also pig-
iron and iron ore ; although there is very little of the latter kind,
partly because Spanish ore competes with it, and partly because
railway communication from the coast has not yet obtained full
access to the mining districts in the interior. On the other hand,
the importation of English iron, formerly very limited, has so
increased, that in the year 1873, Sweden imported iron, chiefly
railway materials, to a value equalling that of the export, viz.,
£1,000,000 nearly.

This exchange is very remarkable. At first sight it seems
strange that Sweden should export so large a quantity of iron to
England, and import so much in return, instead of supplying her
own wants. The explanation, however, consists in the fact, that
the iron exported, which is smelted with charcoal, is far too good
and costly a material for the manufacture of ordinary iron and
railway bars — English iron being good enough for the purpose —
and the absence of coal has hitherto precluded smelting in any
other way than by charcoal. Again, English ores smelted with
coke and coal do not afford a sufficiently pure raw material for the
higher qualities of iron and steel.

Both countries have all along aimed at becoming independent of
each other in iron and steel making ; and more especially is this

ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN. 203

the case at present. Sweden, by opening up railway communicatiijn
in the raining districts, seeks to establish means of transport for
English coke and coal to the seat of iron production, with the
ultimate end of a far more extended home manufacture. At the
same time search is being made for coal, and not altogether with-
out success ; for in the south coal has lately been discovered in
several places, but the quality is not equal to English coal, and
moreover the deposits are, unfortunately, at a distance of about
300 miles from the iron districts. The great aim, on that side, is
to establish larger ironworks for the manufacture of machinery
and of railway plant, for home use at least, if not for exportation.

In England, on the other hand, it is sought, by the importation
of ores from Spain, as well as by ojDening up all the superior sources
of the country, such as the hematite mines, to be independent of
Swedish raw material. Further, by improvements in manufacture,
by new processes, such as Bessemer's and Siemens', as well as by
mechanical puddling, it is attempted to obtain a high quality of
iron even from an inferior raw material. Whatever may happen in
the future, the fact remains that, during the past twenty years,
the value of the exchanged metal has constantly increased, instead
of diminished. As the relative market price is the best illustration
of the value of different metals, a diagram has been prepared of the
comparative prices for the last twenty je&rs of Swedish and
English merchant bar iron. (See page 204.) This diagram refers
to ordinary qualities ; such extra qualities as, for instance, the
Dannemora in Sweden, and the Lowmoor in England, are not
taken into account.

It will be seen that, during the last twenty years, the average
price of English iron has been £7 per ton, that of Swedish iron
£12 10s. per ton. The high price obtained for Swedish iron has
amply paid for the exchange before mentioned. Had the native
iron been used for rail-making it would have been too good, or
rather too costly, inasmuch as the limited traffic at the commence-
ment of railway working is such that even with English iron
rails, when made to specification and under strict inspection, an
endurance of fifteen to twenty years may be safely calculated on.

Besides the comparison between the Swedish and English iron
trade, the diagram shows the fluctuation in price of iron gener-
ally. Such sudden rises as during 1872 and 1873 have been
unprecedented of late, and had, no doubt, their principal cause in
the changes brought about, materially and socially, by the Franco-
German war. These causes having ceased to operate, and America,
the greatest British customer, having withdrawn nearly all her

201

ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN.

00 t^

ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN. 205

orders, partly from the effect of tlie financial panic, partly from
increased home manufacture, the late sudden fall is equally
accounted for. The fact that prices, Loth of iron and of steel, are
at a normal rate again, or thereabouts, is important to engineers,
who may now make their estimates for railways, water and gas-
works, &c. — for all of which the prices of iron and steel form a
vital item — on ordinary or normal bases.

The iron-making of Sweden may be divided into three opera-
tions : —

1st. Mining and charcoal -burning.

2nd. The calcining and smelting of the ore into pig iron.

3rd. The conversion of the pig iron into wrought iron and steel
for the market.

First, concerning mining operations, the geological formation of
the kingdom is chiefly primary rock ; and magnetic ores in layers
are found in the gneiss and granite. The ore is blasted either by
powder or dynamite, and, although hand labour for boring is
generally used, boring machines are being gradually introduced
with great advantage, as the rock is often very hard. Boring
machines are also used for sinking trial shafts both for iron and
other ores, as well as for coal in the south. Engineering skill is
wanted for the actual working of the mine, and for lifting the ore
and spoil. Water power is mainly employed, often carried to
the pit from long distances, yet so well economised that from
70 to 80 per cent, of natural force is utilised by large overfall
waterwheels. With the exception of Gellivara at the extreme
north, the mines are mostly in the heart of the country, say 100
miles to 200 miles from the coast, and the seams are of various
dimensions — up to 100 feet and 150 feet thick. It should be stated
that, in order to stimulate discoveries of mines generally, the law
grants one-half of the proprietorship thereof to the finder, the
remaining moiety to the ground landlord. As regards coal, this
provision has of late caused considerable embarrassment to the
landowner, so that a bill has been passed to prevent further
concessions for the present to the searchers for coal mines. At the
last meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute, at Barrow, Mr. Charles
Smith read a Paper " On the Iron Ores of Sweden," ^ which con-
tained much information as to the different mines, their names and
locality.

Charcoal- burning takes place in the forests, the tops and branches

Vide "The Engineer," Sept. 11, 1874, pp. 198, 199.

206 ENGINEEKING IN SWEDEN.

of the trees being used for this purpose, the lower part of the trunk
being cut into planks for the saw-mills. The wood is piled
together, either vertically or horizontally, and covered with sand
and coal-dust, which is kept damp during the whole of the burn-
ing or carbonising process. When this is completed, say in a week
or two, the fire is damped out, and the pile is left till snow falls
and the lakes freeze so as to enable roads to be formed anywhere.
The charcoal and ore are then carried in sledges to the blast
furnaces. A detailed description of charcoal-burning in Sweden,
is given in Dr. Percy's " Metallurgy." ^

The iron ores chiefly consist of oxide and peroxide, yielding
from 40 to 70 per cent, of pig iron. The rock, which is generally
more or less in admixture, consists of silica, alumina, lime, magnesia,
and manganese, with but little or no phosphorus or sulphur, and
from the absence of these ingredients arises its high value.
The constituents of the charge of the furnace are regulated so as
to afford an easily smelted slag, of more or less basic consistence
according to the quality of the pig to be produced ; thus, iron
ores containing much lime are mixed with those containing much
silica. Generally, however, the silicious ores are the most prevalent,
and want of lime in the ore itself must often be supplied by the
admixture of that substance. The calcining or burning process
consists in heating the ore to red-heat, or as near to melting
point as possible without running the pieces into one lump. This
is done in furnaces which are heated by the waste gas from the
blast furnace, the gas being let in about the middle of the height,
and there lighted after having been conducted to that point in an
iron pipe.

The object of this preliminary calcining is partly to prepare the
ore for reduction, or for the more easy separation of its oxygen, and
partly to burn away the sulphur, if such should in small degree be
jDresent. This process is not absolutely necessary for other ores,
and in fact is seldom used in England, but for the economical
reduction of Swedish ores it is indispensable. After calcination
the ore is crushed to the size of walnuts, and carried to the top of
the blast furnace, where it is mixed with other ores and charged
with lime if necessary.

The charcoal blast furnaces are described by Dr. Percy, as well
as the whole process of smelting ; their chief difference from
the English coke furnaces consists in much smaller dimensions,

• Vide "Metallurgy. By John Percy, M.D., F.K.S. Fuel, etc." 8vo.
London, 18G1, pp. 107-13G.

ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN. 207

with a corresponding deficiency in production, 40 to 50 tons being
a good weekly average. The reason why charcoal furnaces are not
made bigger, or of greater productive capacity, is partly owing
to charcoal being more easily crushed than coke, and partly because
with 50 tons production per week the consumption of charcoal is
so great and the supply so limited, except by bringing it from
long distances, that even one furnace cannot be kept going all
the year round ; indeed, three to four months in blast is considered
iair work. This accounts for the furnaces being spread singly all
over the country to the number of two hundred or three hundred,
with a total production of about that of one or two of the largest
ironworks in England, or 330,000 tons for 1872 from 700,000 tons
of ore brought up. It is therefore evident that what is wanting
in quantity must be made up in the quality of the pig iron pro-
duced, and so it is; for the price of Swedish charcoal pig iron
may be taken to be 60 per cent, above the price of ordinary
English pig iron. It is used principally for conversion in the
charcoal hearth to wrought iron, also of late largely in the Besse-
mer process, as well as in puddling for superior production ; only
small quantities being employed for foundry purposes.

The ordinary method of converting pig iron into wrought iron
is the so-called " Lancashire " method,^ now abandoned in that
country, but still existing in some Welsh tin-plate works. It was
introduced into Sweden by Mr. G. Ekman, who also brought out a
welding: sas furnace ^ to heat the blooms, obtained in the charcoal
Lancashire hearth, for rolling or hammering into bars.

At an early stage of the experiments with the Bessemer process,
Mr. Goranson, of Sandwiken's works, near Gefle, took up the pro-
cess, and considerably contributed to its success by adapting to it
the Swedish raw material. Although for many years financially
disadvantageous both to Mr. Goranson and to Mr. Bessemer, it is
now working with great profit. Notwithstanding this there arc
but seven or eight Bessemer works in Sweden, the reason being
the difficulty of concentrating the produce in one place, as before
stated. However, the increased facilities of transport afforded
by railways will enable larger accumulations of raw material to
be made than formerly, and gradually establishments will be
erected on a more modem scale for the manufacture of finished
articles, such as axles and wheels, tires, plates, and even rails.

' Vide "Metallurgy. By John Percy, M.D., F.R.S. Iron and Steel." 8vo.
London, 1864, p. 591.
2 Ibid., p. 716.

'208 ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN.

by the Bessemer process, as Swedish pig iron is better adapted for
this than for the puddling process. One of the latest established
works in Sweden for the manufacture of iron and steel by the
Bessemer process is situated at a junction of railways and water
communication, and here it is proposed to erect as many as four
blast furnaces. The engineering work consists in adapting the
river so as to obtain a water power of at least 300 HP., and in the
erection of machinery and buildings as follows ^ : —

£.

Canal and "water power 22 , 000

Kailways 4,000

Charcoal storehouse, two gas Icilns, two blast furnaces, two
Bessemer converters, with blowing machines, turbines, and

houses for the same, complete 60 , 000

Foundry and mechanical workshop 5 , 000

Brick-making shop and saw-mills 2 , 000

Storehouses, labourers' cottages, offices, &c 7,000

Total . . . 100,000

The blast furnaces are 55 feet high, 4 feet internal diameter at
the bottom, 9 feet at the bosh, and 5^ feet at the top. Each has
a capacity of 2,670 cubic feet. The apparatus for heating the
blast has 900 square feet of surface. From the blast furnace
the pig iron is carried, in a melted state, to the Bessemer con-
verter by rail, to save re-melting. The converters, which hold
4 tons, the cranes, hydraulic and mechanical arrangements are of
the ordinary English type. To the above cost should be added
the purchase of the ground, as well as the expense of the water
supply, and sufficient mines to supply two furnaces, in all say
£20,000, thus raising the total cost of the establishment and con-
struction of a Bessemer works to £120,000 for the production of
steel ingots to the amount of from 4,000 tons to 5,000 tons yearly.
Next come the forge and the mill, the construction and cost of
which depend upon what is to be made from these ingots, whether
rails, axles and shafts, tires and wheels, or plates and bars. Of
such mills several are in course of erection, but none are yet com-
pleted so as to afford reliable information or experience.

From this it may be seen that Bessemer works of the above
description are, for Swedish ironmasters, rather a large under-

' Vide Minutes of the Swedish Engineer Society, " Ingeniors Fureningens
Forhandlingar," 1874, p. 73; Paper by Professor C. A. Angstrom on Bangbro
Ironworks.

ENGINEEKING IN SWEDEN. 209

talving, and would require the association of a good many
small masters, for which they are often little inclined. This
accounts for the slow adoption of the Bessemer process in Sweden,
notwithstanding there is no country where the raw material
is better suited for it. In this respect the Siemens process is
more suitable, as being adapted for .smaller production, and entail-
ing less outlay for its introduction. Several establishments are
in course of construction for this process, but they are not yet
completed. This applies to the Siemens smelling process of
wrought iron and pig iron into steel in the reverberatory gas
furnace ; as the direct process by reducing ore and making iron
and steel would not be facilitated in Sweden, where the ores are
more difficult to reduce than the haematites of England.

The puddling is chiefly carried on at Motala, where also Danks'
mechanical puddling has been tried. At the Motala works there is
a splendid establishment for steamboat building, and nearly all the
numerous steamboats for the inland and coast traffic have been
built there; sometimes, by these vessels running aground, or
coming into collision, excellent proofs of the ductility of the
plates are afforded ; there is very seldom a breakage, but only dis-
tortion of form, which is easily repaired without much loss.
The Swedish Navy is likewise supplied with vessels from this
establishment.

In round figures, the annual pig iron production of Sweden is
300,000 tons. Out of this quantity 180,000 tons are made into bars,
8,000 tons into Bessemer steel, 6,000 tons into plates, 6,000 tons
into nails, 3,000 tons into rails, and 10,000 tons into manufac-
turing, agricultural and other imj^lements. This quantity is pro-
duced by five thousand miners, three thousand ironworkers for
the blast furnaces, six thousand at the forges, six thousand at
the foundries and manufactories, or say twenty thousand in all,
which is no small proportion out of a total population of 4,000,000.
The calculated value of the iron mines is about £1,000,000 sterling,
that of the blast furnaces, foundries, and factories £1,000,000, and
that of the forges and mills also £1,000,000; say £3,000,000 in all
for the Swedish iron mines and works, of course fluctuating in
proportion to profit made in the trade.^

Besides a separate division of the Board of Trade for mining
and metallurgy, there is in Sweden an institution of which
there is no parallel in England, viz., the " Jernkontor," or iron
office. The old ironmasters of Sweden subscribed to establish a

' Vide '• Statiitisk Handbok." E. FShrceua. Stockholm, 1872, p. 307.
[1874-75. N.S.] P

210 ENGINEEBING IN SWEDEN.

banking institution, with the object of supporting trade in bad times,
by granting loans to the iron proprietors at low rates, on stocks
of iron which could not at the time be realised advantageously.
The funds for this Institution were and are now obtained by levy-
ing a small rate on production, and the total funded capital is
about £300,000. The iron trade of Sweden is assisted in addition
by a considerable staff of engineers, mining, metallurgical, and
mechanical, mainly supported by the Jernkontor. The country
is divided into mining districts, with a director and engineer for
each, and a few articled pupils, all receiving a yearly salary from
the Jernkontor, and allowed to charge the ironmaster a small
settled fee when employed in the construction of new works, or
in the introduction of new processes. The staff have received a
course of scientific and practical education at the government
School of Mines, and they are often sent to foreign countries, in
order to keep the ironmasters informed of what is going on
abroad. For the last forty or fifty years the "Jernkontor" has
published a journal, called the " Jernkontorets Annaler," contain-
ing mainly the annual reports of each of these employes. It is
now ably edited by Professor Ei chard Akerman, of the Eoyal School
of Mines in Stockholm, and is sent gratuitously to all the iron-
masters in Sweden, but is obtainable by the public at a low cost.
The Jernkontor is governed by a president, vice-president, and ten
councillors, who are elected every third year ; their meetings are
held every quarter in Stockholm, where the permanent secretary
and treasurer conduct business in the intervals between the
meetings.

It would be unjust to finish this description of Swedish engi-
neering without acknowledging that the credit mainly belongs to
the Corps of Eoyal Engineers for the construction both of the
canals and of the railways. The country is divided into districts
in respect of road and water communications, and each district is
provided with officers to survey and execute public and private
works. Members of the Corps of Eoyal Engineers are previously
educated at the Government School of Civil and Military Engineers
at Mai'ieberg, near Stockholm, and afterwards have to execute
both private and public works as well as inspect them before they
are opened. A yearly report is submitted to Parliament of work
done in each district. This formerly consisted in canal-making,
drainage of lakes, building of harbours and docks, and new roads,
for which Government generally defrays part of the cost.

Eailways have advanced to such an extent in Sweden, that the
Corps has of late been too much occupied to give a detailed de-

ENGINEERING IN SWEDEN. 211

scription of work done ; the reports have in consequence been com-
plained of as short and uninstructive. There being no special
department of Government for public works, railways, canals, and
mining engineering come under the control of the Minister of the
Interior. With the increase in construction of railways and public
works generally, there is thought to be a necessity for a Department
of Public Works, similar to like branches of the Government in
other countries, to regulate the construction of new lines as well
as the working of those open, to promote industry, and to serve
as a guarantee for public safety. Should such a department be
•established, nothing would be of greater assistance to the engineer-
ing profession in that country, and particularly to the Civil Engi-
neers, who may now be considered as a body without a chief.^

1' 2

212 RECONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGES, DELHI RAILWAY.

^No. 1,401. — " The Implements employed, and the Stone Protectionr
adopted, in the Eeconstruction of the Bridges on the Delhi Rail-
way." By Charles Stone, M. Inst. C.E.

In 1867, when in charge, for the Company, of the Jumna bridge
works, Delhi Eailway, the Author commenced making notes with
a view to write an account of the system of well-sinking then
in progress. Finding, however, Mr. Imrie Bell, M. Inst. C.E.,
who represented the contractors at that time, and who was daily
employed in superintending the practical working, similarly en-
gaged, the idea was given up, in the belief that his Paper would
be the more valuable one.^ Since then the unusually heavy floods
of 1871-2 have caused serious disasters to the bridges, scouring out
many of the well piers and of the wells of wing walls, although
the former were sunk to depths of from 40 feet to 43 feet, and
the latter to depths varying from 26 feet to 43 feet, below low
water, indicating that those depths were insufficient, unless the
foundations were protected by beds of stone, to prevent or reduce
the scour. This has been successfully carried out, new well piers
have been sunk to an increased depth, and protected with stone,
and training bunds have been put in for conserving the rivers
above bridge for the protection of the abutments.

The Author now desires to supplement Mr. Bell's Paper, with
an account of the various implements used in the reconstruction
works carried out under his supervision at the Sutlej, Beas, and
Jumna rivers, and with a description of the system of stone
protection adopted at all large rivers and streams subject to floods,
crossed by the Delhi railway, as well as of the training banks put
in for preserving the channels above bridge, — a system which,
from the experience gained, is being universally followed by the
Engineers of the State railways.

It was decided to sink the new piers for the bridges over the
rivers Beas and Sutlej to a depth of 70 feet, if possible, below low
water, and to increase the diameter from 12 feet 6 inches to 15 feet;
but to reduce that diameter to 12 feet 6 inches at low-water level,
so as to correspond with the other piers of the bridge. The
first well curbs, of 12 feet 6 inches diameter, were of iron ; those

' Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. xxviii., p. 325.

RECONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGES, DELHI RAILWAY. 213

used in tlic reconstruction works were of wood, in sections or
rings, so as to break joint, and dowelled togctlier.

The system of sinking with the jhani and sand pump has
already been described by Mr, Bell. From the increased dia-
meter of the cylinders, and the increased depth, the sand pump
alone was found insufficient for the purposes, owing to the stiff
clay and conglomerate met with at from 30 feet to 35 feet belo^v
low water. Accordingly the sand pump has been superseded, to
a considerable extent, by Bull's dredger ' (Plate 12, Figs. 1 to 4),
used in sinking the new wells of the above bridges. The dredger
is lowered into the well by a crab and tackle working over a
puUc}' fixed to a gallows or sheer-legs, erected on a stage at the
top of the well. Before lowering, the clip or double pin (Fig. 4)
is inserted into holes in the two segments (Fig. 2) ; this keeps
the dredger open until it reaches the bottom of the well, when
the clip is withdrawn by means of a stout cord. The lowering-
chain, attached to the chains working in guides and small rollers
at the four corners of the dredger, is then pulled up slightly,
agitated, and lowered by coolies. By these means the jaws of the
dredger are gradually drawn together, scooping up the sand or loose
material. The number of times the chain is so pulled depends
lapon the material to be dredged. With loose soil the jaws soon
meet, when the dredger is drawn up, opened on the staging,
and the materials fall out ; the clip is then again inserted, and
the operation repeated. In sand, the time occuiDied for each opera-
tion of lowering, dredging, and lifting averages five or six mi-
nutes; the depth in this case being, from the top of the staging
to low water 25 feet, from low water to the bottom of the curb
46 feet, the depth of hole dredged below the curb 12 feet, or a
total of 83 feet. With the sand pump a corresponding operation
would take more time, as the four cotters have to be driven out
when the pump is dropped on to the staging, the pump raised to
leave the bottom clear to remove the sand, and then lowered
and re-keyed. So long as the material is sand the dredger is
effective ; but, like the pump, it can only be lowered into the
centre of the well, and the result is that, in stiff material, the
dredger works out a hole in the form of an inverted cone, and the
quantity dredged at each operation is small.

In the stiff clay and conglomerate met with at the Sutlej at a
depth of about 35 feet, the progress of sinking was exceedingly

' An account of this and of other excavating apparatus is contained in " Pro-
fcesional Papers on Indian Engineering," 2nd series, vols, i., ii., and iii. passim.

2T4 KECONSTRUCTION 01'' BKIDGES, DELHI RAILWAY.

slow. The Author then tried a jumper, composed of rails fished
together for the required lengths, the end of the lower length
heing chiselled to an edge. This jumper was raised by a crab
engine or by coolies to a height of 8 feet or 10 feet, then suddenly
let go, when the jumper became imbedded deeply in the clay. The-
operation was repeated until a sufficient quantity had been loosened,,
when the dredger was used, bringing up masses weighing from
20 lbs. to 85 lbs. This combined system, of the heavy chiselled
jumper and the dredger, has been found the most suitable for
great depths and stiff material. One advantage of the chiselled
jumper is that, when raised to the required height, it can be
' guyed ' over and dropped at any point within the well. But
after excavating, by these means, to a depth of 16 feet below the
bottom of the curb, notwithstanding the wells were loaded with
rails and other iron material to the extent of from 700 tons to
800 tons, the wells would still hang. Divers were then sent down
to excavate under the curb ; and after dredging out the stufi"
so cut away, and exhausting the water to within 8 feet of the
bottom, the wells seldom sank more than 1 inch at a time, hi
the wells recently sunk at the Sutlej, the soil was so dense that
an average depth of only 2 feet 10 inches was attained for each
well, after working in the way above described for three months.

The wells were filled with concrete by ordinary- skips. To
accomplish this, to build up the piers from low-water level, and
to lay the girders before the floods came on, it was necessary to
suspend operations at a depth of 47 feet below low water. But
as probings showed that there was a stiff bed of clay and con-
glomerate for at least 15 feet below the bottom of the curb, and
as the wells were protected by 20,000 ciibic feet of heavy blocks
of stone thrown in round them, it was believed they would not be
injured by scour.

An excavator for deep well foundations has been introduced by
Mr. K. J. Ives, a sub-engineer in the Public Works Department,
which he believes will supersede sand pumps and dredgers, at all
events for stiff clay. Figs. 5, 6, and 7 (Plate 12) represent the
tool as adapted for clay, Figs. 8 and 9 as applied for sand. The
mode of working is as follows : The excavator lock, at the back,
is first pushed into place, a light line being attached to the lock,
as shown. The blade is now open or vertical with the monkey
guide rod, in which position the excavator is lowered to the
bottom of the well, where the apparatus is kept upright by the
lowering-chain being held slightly taut. The monkey is now
worked up and down the centre guide rod, by the line attached to-

RECONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGES, DELHI RAILWAY. 215

it, leading over a pulley fixed on a staging on the top of the well.
The monkey, being allowed to fall by its own weight, gives a sharp
blow to the head of the excavator, and drives the blade into the
ground at each blow. After a sufficient number of blows, the lock-
ing gear is pulled, which draws out the locking-bolt and releases
the blade from its vertical position ; when this has been done, the
lifting-chain is hauled by the crab, and the blade dragged out of
the ground with its load, in a position at right angles with the
monkey guide rod. Continued hauling on the lifting-chain
brings the whole to the top of the well, where the material so
excavated is tipped. The locking gear is again piTshed into
place, and the apparatus lowered into the well for another
operation.

Se"<^eral objections presented themselves in the use of this exca-
vator. It should assume, at starting, a perpendicular position to
give due effect to the monkey. A certain amount of slack is
necessary at each blow, and it was found that after a few strokes
the apparatus was thrown over to an angle of 30"^ or 40°, and was
practically useless. Again, the excavator could not be lowered, to
work at any great depth, otherwise than in the centre of the well ;
the result was that it dropped into the same place successively;
whereas an implement is required that will operate about the
whole of the inner diameter of the well. A further drawback was
the continual derangement, by the jarring, from the repeated blows
of the monkey. It was therefore abandoned for the more effectual
and cheaper implement, the chiselled-rail jumper previously
described.

Figs. 1 and 2 (Plate 13) represent the systems of stone protection
carried out at the bridge over the Jumna and on the east bank of
the river. The bridge has twent3'-four spans of 110 feet, the
girders of the superstructure resting on well piers of 12 feet
6 inches diameter. The abutments are built on wells of the same
diameter, sunk, like the well piers, 43 feet 6 inches below low-
water level. The curved portion of the wing wall, on the up-
stream side, was built on seven 10-feet wells, sunk from 43 feet
6 inches to 32 feet 6 inches, and the straight portion on twenty-six
7-feet wells, sunk from 28 feet to 26 feet 6 inches, in both cases
below low water. The down-stream wing wall was founded on
seven 10-feet, and fifteen 7-feet wells, sunk to depths corresponding
with the up-stream wells. In the floods of 1871, which were higher
than any on record since the commencement of the first surveys in
1861, a powerful current set against the east bank of the river.

21 G RECONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGES, DELHI RAILAVAY.

atove the bridge, which at this time extended nearly three spans
forward from the face of the abutment. From the nature of the
soil, the erosion was very rapid back to the abutment, so that the
current soon began to encroach on the high ground in front of the
wing wall, and eventually scoxired out the wells of the wing wall
on the up-stream side ; fortunately the abutment wells escaped.
After the floods subsided, a careful inspection was made, when
it was decided, instead of sinking new wells, to try the effect of
heavy blocks of stone in trenches 10 feet wide, and as deep below
low water as ordinary excavations would permit. This was done
at the foot of the slope of the embankment, extending back i mile
from the abutment. An additional work in advance of this, and
similarly trenched, was also put in for the more immediate pro-
tection of the abutment. To prevent any further encroachitfent of
the river along the east bank, in case the current in future set in
the same direction, two groynes or bunds were thrown out, the
upper one, ^ mile in length, covering the lower and shorter bund,
the latter forming a second breakwater in the event of the first
giving way. The heart of the bunds was composed of sand and
earth, topped and faced with stone ; the land end was trenched and
carried back into the high ground, to prevent the water getting in
behind the groyne ; while the other end was sloped well into the
river, and composed wholly of stone. The abutments are similarly
protected with stone, as well as each well pier. The Jumna was
the first bridge on which the experiment of stone protection was
tried. The result was most satisfactory; for it stood the test of
another heavy flood season in 1872, again in 1873, and also in
1874. During floods, the bed of the river is in a semi-fluid state
for a considerable depth, and scour is most rapid, but wherever
stone is put in the scour is at once checked. The experience of
four seasons has shown, from probings, that the stone does not
move horizontally with the force of the current, but settles ver-
tically, compressing the substratum, and that the scour takes place
between the stone placed round the piers. As the vertical settle-
ment progresses more stone is thrown in, but the quantity required
has become less in each succeeding season.

Figs. 3 and 4 represent in elevation and in plan the west abut-
ment, wing walls, and two spans of the Beas bridge, which were
protected with stone in a similar manner. The set of one of the
currents of this river was against this abutment, scouring deeply
between the piers of the first two spans ; as a further protection to
this part of the work, a stone flooring was put in at low water in
the dry season, as shown in Fig. 5.

RECONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGES, DELHI RAILWAY. 217

Figs. 6 and 7 are examples of two piers at the Sutlej, showing
the stone as put in during the dry season, and the position it took
during the rainy season, the depths being obtained by probings
taken after the floods. Figs. 8 and 9 are sections of one channel of
the river, showing by soundings the scour before any stone was
thrown in, and the result after the stone had been placed, from
which it will be observed that the scour, which before took place
immediately round the piers, now occurs between the piers.

The same system of protection has been carried out at the piers,
abutments, and river banks of all the Company's bridges over rivers
subject to floods, with precisely similar results. The probings
since the floods of 1874 show an equally satisfactory state of things
at the Jumna, the Beas, and the Sutlej bridges. When the piers
are in channels, the stone is thrown from the top of the bridge ;
when the piers are dry at the time of low water, the sand and silt
of the river bed are excavated to as great a depth as practicable,
generally o feet or 6 feet below low water, and for 20 feet beyond
the outer diameter of the well, and the stone is then placed by
hand.

The Paper is accompanied by a series of drawings and models,
from which Plates 12 and 13 have been compiled.

218 THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWORKS.

No. 1,274. — " Xotes on the Consolidation of Earthworks." l^y Jules
Gaudard, Civil Engineer, Lausanne (Translated from the French
by James Dredge, C.E.).

The execution of earthworks for roads, and more especially for
railways, is frequently hindered by landslips, sometimes of so
serious a nature as to defy all the resources of the engineer.

In laying down the centre line of a road or of a railway, the
regularity of the natural surface is not by any means the sole con-
sideration. I'he attention of the engineer has to be carefully directed
to the nature of the ground ; he must avoid, as far as possible, deep
cuttings in clayey soils, and, above all, in side-lying ground.
Embankments, again, should not only be constructed of carefully-
selected material, but they should be formed upon a natural
surface solid enough to carry their weight without settlement.

It is easy to lay down rules for dealing with simple and well-
defined cases, but Nature for the most part presents complicated
conditions for the engineer to control. Matter is not purely inert ;
it possesses, so to speak, a certain chemical or physical life, which
becomes gradually converted either into change of material, or into
motion.

In the simple case of a cutting or a tunnel in rock, the sides
of the cutting or the roof of the tunnel may be left unpro-
tected, provided the rock is sufficiently solid. But there are
materials which, appearing reliable at first, disintegrate under
atmospheric influences ; and natural steep sloping beds or stratifi-
cations, which induce slips, are not unfrequently encountered. In
such cases it is necessary either to give special inclinations to the
faces of the earthworks, or to protect them with masonry. Or,
instead of a cohesive soil, suppose a material, dry, homogeneous
and easily disintegrated. In this case the question of stability
would also be very simple, for this ground has the property of falling
only at certain angles, depending upon its nature, according to
which it remains more or less stable. If then the requisite space
be available to give the proper slope, no difficulty presents itself;
or when the base is limited, the weight of the earthwork can be
sustained in a vertical plane by a retaining wall.

The theory of the thrust of earth against, and of the stability

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWORKS. 219

of, retaiuiiig walls is well known. The theory docs not aspire to

exactness, but it i<iiffices in practice, provided it is not applied in

complex cases. Let the wall retain the weight A B, Fig. 1.

Theoiy shows that the mass tends to -p ,

slide along the line C X (straight, or

rather curved), an intermediate angle

l>etween the vertical and the natural

slope of the material. Supposing the

earth to be in a disintegrated condition,

A B lies between the natural inclination

and the horizontal, and the prism of maximum thrust A C X is

but limited, even when the side A B is indefinitely extended. In

these conditions the wall can easily retain the earth behind it.

It would equally serve as a retaining wall for water, in which
the limiting surface A B is of course horizontal. Mud, too, diflers
little from water, excepting that its density is greater.

But imagine that there exists in C D a water-bearing seam.
This permeable bed, saturated with and discharging water,
would evidently form a sliding surface, especially as it would
almost certainly rest on a more or less impermeable clay stratum,
the top of which, softened by the water, becomes slippery or
greasy. Here the hypothesis of theory is destroyed, and it may
be impossible to construct a stable retaining wall, on account of
the great pressure behind, which tends to force it forward or
overturn it. The earth towards the surface may also be cohesive,
to such an extent that the surface A B has a greater angle than is
due to its natural slope : the effect of this would be to increase the
divergence between the limiting and the sliding lines A B and C D,
and therefore the amount of the moving mass. Natiiral stratifi-
cations, or earthwork if laid in successive layers behind a retaining
wall, also possess a certain sliding tendency, which destroys the
hyjiothesis of the homogeneous theory. It is far preferable to
form the earthwork in well-punned layers, in such a manner as to
form stratifications, as it were, the sliding angle of which is in
the opposite direction to the thrust against the wall.^

Retaining walls are often unable to resist the thrust of earth
resting on natural sliding slopes. To check this action the footings
of the wall should bo taken down into the solid ground. Thus
stratifications of soft ground can be preserved in their natural
state, because the slope is reduced as the lower parts are reached.
Even a comparatively light cutting in such a soil must be accom-

' Vide Minutes of Proceetlings lust. C.E.. vol. i. (1S41), p. 143.

220 THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWORKS.

panied with danger. In all these cases, if the conditions are
known beforehand, precautions can be taken so as to carry out
the work without failure, and to retain the ground after it has
been completed. To secure this, plenty of timbering is neces-
sary while the work is in progress, and subsequently the earth
must be retained by strutted walls, provided with sufficient outlets
for the drainage. Such structures are not ordinary retaining
walls, because they do not resist the pressure against them by
the inertia of their mass ; and they may be strutted either at the
base or toward the summit, or, if necessary, both above and
below.

The walls of the Blisworth cutting (London and Birmingham
railway) are strengthened by counterforts strutted underneath
the road bed (Fig. 2). Overhead strutting is applied in the case of

Fig. 2. Fig.

•fill -,;"'r " ."'" ^

_ "■ '~Ji;/,^ .'r-j!'''^'|l'^-"'!''^ :''j-, *' ill .»ii

liigh walls, which threaten to turn over rather than to slide out
at the base. Many cuttings in England are thus strengthened
by cast-iron struts ; as, for example, on the inclined plane at
Euston (Fig. o)} In the same Paper Mr. Hosking has noticed an
arrangement of masonry struts, with counterforts spaced 21 feet
apart ; the wall itself being counter-arched between the counter-
forts, to check it from yielding under the pressure at the back
(Fig. 4). Struts analogous to these are found at the Moseley
tunnel (Birmingham and Gloucester railway). Finally, masonry
struts, placed 15 feet apart, and of the form shown in Fig.^ 5,
serve to strengthen the retaining walls of the Chorley cutting
(Bolton and Preston railway). These are formed with upper
inverted arches to give them additional stiifness. When the
cuttings are in side-lying ground, the struts should be inclined
(Fig. 6).

From works of this nature to tunnels there is only a step, as
the latter may be adopted with advantage instead of very deep

» Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. iii., p. 358.

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWORKS.

221

cuttings. The small tiTnnel of Bochat, near Lausanne, was sub-
jected to the action of a landslip so severe that it involved an

Fir.. 4.

Fig. ,').

Fig. G.

Fig. 7.

mv=m,

alteration in the profile of the line, a sufficient evidence of the
difficulties that would have been met with had a deep cutting been
attempted.

For overhead strutting, the use of iron appears to possess con-
siderable advantages as compared with masonry, when the ground
to be retained exerts variable thrusts, according to periods of
rain or dryness ; in this case it is to be feared that the arches, some-
times exerting a thrust against the walls, and sometimes being
thrust by them, incur a danger of eventual failure. The iron
arched struts should be made very flat ;
theoretically, they should only be suffi-
ciently curved to counteract the deflec-
tion due to their own weight.

Many other examples might be
given ; but enough has been said to
show, that the mode of strutting at
intervals constitutes an efficient means
of enabling the retaining wall of a cut-
ting to resist considerable thrust. This
mode cannot, however, be applied when
there is only one side to retain, or
when the heights of the two walls are
very unequal. Then other methods
have to be resorted to. For example,
thick, dry stone walls may be employed,
strengthened by long internal counterforts, as in Fig. 7. Thi»

222

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EAKTHWOEKS.

class of masonry acts as an efficient means of draining the slope
lieliind, and it gradually becomes hardened into a compact mass,
forming, together with the counterforts that strengthen it, a body
of firm earth and stone able to retain the mobile material above.
Examples of this form of constritction may be seen on the Stras-
bourg railway. On the Lyons line, walls have been employed
with dry stone backing, provided with openings through the front
of the wall, which is laid in mortar, to discharge the water.

Inclined walls, as in Fig. 8, may often be more economically

employed than those with a
slight batter, because the
whole of their weight falls on
the ground which has a ten-
dency to slip. An example
of this may be found on the
Versailles railway (left side).
The slope of the cutting of
Brigant (Blesmes-Gray) is supported by inclined arches (Fig. 9) laid

Fig. 8.

.ir.o;Vii= .'

^^fr

^^-RjTfc

1
i.

1
1

Fir.. 9.

RooA,

SJv

vGc'Lj ic.^

in the slope, the spaces between being filled in with dry stone. The
bases of the piers rest upon a continuous footing, along the side ot
the roadway, connected with a similar one on the other side by
means of inverts A B, at intervals across the track. These inverts
are 39 inches wide, 20 inches thick, and about 16 feet 4 inches
apart from centre to centre. The slope is drained by pipes leading
into a central culvert, C, below the invert.

The cutting of Loxeville (Paris-Strasbourg railway) was first
consolidated by a double row of pointed arches, having 6 feet 6 inch
openings, and 18 feet high for each row, the piers of the upper
tier resting on the keystones of the lower arches. The ground
consists of a thick stratum of very permeable limestone, upon
clays which become disintegrated by exposure to the air. As slips
occurred upon this work, a careful system of drainage was esta-
blished by means of ditches and benched collectors.

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWORKS. 223

The principle of strutted sides can also he applied to unstable
ombaukments, which it is necessary to hold in place, as it were, by
a cofferdam. An embankment near the Sevres station, on the
"Western railway of France, was held together in this manner.
Oak sheet piling was sunk on each side of the bank, the two
inclosing sides being coupled to-
gether by tie-rods, so as to prevent ^^'
any spreading of the earth. Fig. 10
shows this arrangement. The side
slopes were not disturbed ; but they
only play a small part in the whole,

because the lack of adhesion between the earth and the oak piling
woiild encourage the falling away of the prism ABC.

Physical Causes of Landslips.

So far only the question of retaining earth mechanically has
been considered. Walls are often too costly, and are, moreover, in
many cases, unreliable. The physical considerations, which play
an important part in the problem, and which lead the engineer
towards other remedies, will now be dealt with. The most danger-
ous landslips are not those which take place suddenly and without
previous indications, but rather those which are slow and pro-
gressive. Frequently they do not occur until two or three years
after the execution of the works which induced them. This fact
would indicate that the vibration of passing trains helps towards
the catastrophe.^

It is worth noticing that in canals, which are not subjected to
the same vibration as railway works, the ground may become
consolidated at the end of a few months. The approach of dislo-
cation is indicated at first by simple fissures, then by small quan-
tities of falling earth, which gradually increase in mass until the
entire fall takes place. Such accidents are especially frequent in
loamy soils combined with permeable or water-bearing seams.
The clay, softened by the water, gradually forms mud. It is
time that plastic clay, confined and well consolidated so that it
cannot move, forms an impermeable mass able to resist great
hydraidic pressure; and it is this property that renders the
material so valuable in the construction of cofferdams. But natural
beds of clay are seldom homogeneous ; they are frequently schistous,
and combined with other and soluble or oozy materials, traversed

' Vide Minutes of Proceedingg Inst. C.E., vol. iii., p. 170.

224 THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWORKS.

by fissures, worm-holes, or the roots of vegetables ; and, finally, claj^
is highly susceptible to deleterious atmospheric influences.

It will be clearly seen, therefore, that loamy or marly soils,
more or less impure and subject to the action of water, become
finally disorganised, and fall, at first in small fragments which
detach themselves from the main body, and afterwards with more
rapid movements, which affect the whole mass as soon as the con-
ditions of equilibrium are changed. Mr. Charles Hutton Gregory
mentions^ experiences gained on the London and Croydon railway,
and especially in the New Cross cutting. Two classes of clay were
met with — compact London blue clay, and a yellow clay so impure,
so full of fissures, and so impregnated with saline materials, that
it formed really a highly permeable earth, which could be quickly
changed into slimy mud. In the North of Spain a heavy cutting,
also lying through a yellow clayey soil, had to be abandoned, and
the centre line of the railway shifted.

In certain cases chemical agency is active, and an internal
molecular action is set up, which disorganises the mass, impreg-
nates it with water and gas, and changes the actual volume of
the material. Thus Mr. Gregory mentions the presence of iron
pyrites in j^ellow clay, which being decomposed by the action of
the weather, generated sulphuric acid, that in its turn decomposed
the carbonate of lime, and formed crystals of selenite. Mr. Clutter-
buck remarks that the blue London clay contains protoxide of
iron, and that the superficial beds exposed to the action of the air
owe their yellow colour to the transformation of the protoxide to a
peroxide.

The action of the atmospheric agencies may be thus explained.
Clay, which in the lower beds is comparatively soft but compact, and
Avith slight variations in density, varies greatly, on the contrary,
when exposed, according to the state of the weather. In times of
heat and dryness it contracts and cracks, whilst after a rain which
penetrates the fissures, the clay distends. Eenewed dryness re-
opens the cracks and increases them, and again the water pene-
trates deeper than before, while pieces become gradually detached
from the surface of the slope. ' The first slip increases the fissures,
uncovers portions previously preserved and sustained, and gives an
impulse to new derangements, which are gradually extended.
The existence of water-bearing beds within the clay augments the
danger, not only on accoixnt of the water weeping upon the face of
the cutting, or, changed in its regular action by a partial falling of

' Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. iii., p. 135.

chargi

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWORKS. 225

the slope, and acting in the fissures in the same manner as rain —
hut hLso hecaiise they constitute natural slij)pery fissures, which
complete and hasten the detachment of large masses. Thus, when
the fissure A B, Fig. 11,

descends near enough to Fig. H.

the water-bearing seam
C E, the fall of the mass

A B E C is imminent, /'' ^^:^tW^^}}^^^^^'ff "^.'^^'''^

althoiigh no disorganisa-
tion other than the fissure
A B has occurred. When

the fall takes place, a new face is exposed, less stable than the
orginal slope, the loam soon changes into a state of semi-fluidity
and of unstable equilibrium, unable to sustain itself at'any angle.

Frost and thaw contribute also to the destruction of the sides of
a cutting. The former hardens and compresses the soil, then the
thaw, reducing the water in volume, destroys the cohesion of the
earthy particles, and predisposes them to melt in the water ; an
efiect which declares itself immediately by the swelling of the clay.
This evil is, moreover, greatly increased if the bed, hardened by
the frost, contains water-bearing seams ; for, when the thaw takes
L place, an accident is imminent from the sudden discharge of the
B liberated water. Heavy rain-storms also exert a mechanical action
Hl by their volume and velocity ; they wear and furrow the surface
^^slopes, where the rapidity of their flow may become considerable.
^B Clay soils are not the only ones which offer obstacles to the
^B execution of heavy earthworks. Certain water-bearing sands are
^B quite fluent, on account of their permeability ; peaty grounds are
^B compressible, and sink under superimposed loads ; tufa and marl,
^B firm when protected from the action of the air, quickly disintegrate
^B under atmospheric influences. - In the Clamart (Paris-Rennes rail-
^P way) cutting, it has been sufiicient to protect the slopes with
masonry revetments, or with vegetable earth ^ell rammed.

In mountainous districts, heaps of fallen materials are met with,
fed constantly by the slopes and the rough action of the weather.
It is necessary to arrest these moving soils, either by fascines, by
plantations, by retaining walls, or by other means. It is especially
in schistous formations that the limiting slopes are unstable,
being composed of laminated masses. For the most part, these
formations, situated in a locality favourable to vegetation, are
covered with plants which consolidate them in conjimction with
jwrfiice accumulations. Under these circumstances they can sustain
certain weights of embankment, even if they cannot be opened to
[1874-75. N.S.] Q

226 THE CONSOLIDATION OF EABTHWOEKS.

form deej) cuttings. Feldspatliic rocks often contain veins or
pockets of clay; and, lastly, clayey schists are eqxially unsafe,
especially where they present sliding faces considerably inclined
towards the cutting.

Watery seams are dangerous, although sometimes they are scv
thin as not to he readily apparent. They discover themselves,
however, on the side of a cutting by the water which passes from
them. In cuttings already completed, it is at sunrise that these
slight filtrations are most apparent. If necessary, the side may be
sprinkled with sand or ashes, which will indicate the position of
the humid deposit. If these are visible in bright sunshine and in
dry , weather, they reveal, as a matter of certainty, the existence
of internal water. Eoots of trees sometimes produce humid filtra-
tions, and it may occasionally happen that weeping takes place
between two beds of clay, and not only at the bottom of sandy
deposits.

The chief means of dealing with these slippery formations con-
sist— 1, in insuring the free discharge of the water by means of
channels, drains, or filters, in such a manner that the ground shall
be gradually dried and consolidated ; 2, to take off the rain or
surface water as rapidly as possible, by means of imjiermeable
coverings, benches, or ditches ; 3, to preserve the loamy soils from
the action of sun, rain, and frost, and sometimes to protect the
foot of the slopes with walls, or simple counterforts of well-rammed
earth. Success has in general attended the adoj)tion of these
measures, when they have been applied with judgment. Never-
theless, it will always be prudent in executing work in bad
ground to avoid deep cuttings or high embankments, to increase
the side slopes, and to abstain from carrying out these difficult
works in bad weather. The drainage especially requires favour-
able weather, and it should be conducted simultaneously with
the works, to lead off the water from the excavation carried to
spoil. The best season is included between the months of March
and September.

Concerning the proper slopes to be employed in cuttings in bad
ground, it is well to increase them to 2 or 3 of base to 1 of height,
instead of employing H to 1, or 1 to 1, which are applicable in good
material. This reduction only apjilies, in some cases, to the slope
or strata inclining towards the railway; the opposite slope can
be formed with a greater angle. The theoretical form of the sides
should be slightly concave, a form observed after landslips.

The conditions involved in the formation of efficient drainage

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWORKS.

227

ami protection of works and of cuttings will now he considered ;
passing on next to the question of repairs necessary after the
occurrence of a landslip, and then a few words will be added on
the consolidation of embankments. The principal sources whence
this information has been drawn are : — Nouveau Portefeuille de
ringenieur des Chemins de Fer, par Perdonnet et Polonceau,
p. 128: and from the Documents, Eapport de M. Daigrcmont,
p. 73, and a very complete Memoir of M. Bruere, p. 103, also
p. 153. Ti'aite de I'entretien et de I'exploitation des Chemins de
Fer, par Ch. Goschler, 1st volume, Traite pratique de I'entretien
des tranchees et remblais. Minutes of Proceedings of the Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers, 1844 and 1845. ,

Cuttings.

The side slopes of a cutting may be drained by the construction
of channels (Sazilly system) if the water-bearing seams are clearly-
defined ; by pipe drainage if the distribution of \Yater is more
vague and general ; and, lastly, by filtration in the case of water-
bearing sand.

1. In water-bearing strata. — In some instances a deep, narrow
trench has been excavated in the bank, at a sufficient distance
from the face of the slope, the sides of the trench being timbered
and filled with dry stone (Fig. 12). The planes of moisture in the

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

prism ABC dry up, and the earth gradually and surely, becomes
consolidated. This method is good, but costly ; it may be employed
to arrest movement already commenced. It is generally sufficient
to fill only a part of the trench with stones, which may then be
covered with moss, straw, or turf, and the filling-in may be finished
with rammed earth.

Sazilly^ devised a more economical system of small longitudinal

' Vide " Anuales des Fonts et CLaiissJes." 3' se'rie, 1851, 1" sem. p. 1.

Q 2

228 THE CONSOLIDATION OF EAKTHWOKKS.

drains, estaLlished near the face of the slope, and formed in the
vicinity of the seam. At the hottom of a cutting in the face
of the slope (Fig. 13), is placed a channel, formed transversely of
three tiles set in hydraulic mortar. The tiles employed for this
purpose are 3* 15 inches wide, and '787 inch thick; or the
channel can be more simply formed with a single row of ordinary
half-round tiles. Eound or broken flints, 2 inches or 2^ inches in
diameter, or sometimes furnace slag, are thrown over the channel.
The larger pieces are placed below, and the smaller nearest to
the water-bearing seam. This stone filling, heaped against the
vertical side of the cutting in the face of the slope, is always high
enough to cover any irregularity in the line of the water discharge.
The surface may be covered with turf, or with a layer of clay or
matting, with tiles, or with flat stones, to keep out the mud which
would gradually choke the drain. Two lines of water discharge,
at least 18 inches apart, can be served by the same channel.
This system of drainage is laid in the face of the slope, with
gradients of at least 1 in 100, and at their successive lowest
points they discharge into the side drains of the railway. The
cost ought not to exceed one shilling per lineal yard.

It is necessary to protect the whole of a slope of loamy soil with
a covering against the action of the rain, sun, and frost. The
revetment may be executed in earth, in successive layers from
6 inches to 8 inches thick, laid with a slope opposed to the
face of the bank. Vegetable earth is suitable, or clayey sand, or a
mixture of clayey marl and vegetable earth. A certain proportion
of friable clay has even been added without inconvenience, as,
for instance, on the Hundsoff and Strohiibel cuttings on the
Wissembourg line. Ramming renders the bed almost imper-
meable ; nevertheless M. Bruere recommends the formation of a
small drain at the foot of the slope, to carry off such of the
surface water as may have penetrated through the revetment.
Finally, the surface is sowti or planted with couch grass, clover,
lucerne or French grass ; occasionally with shrubs, acacia, willow,
birch, maple, &c., the deep roots of which sjjrcad, compressing
and consolidating the ground. Care must be taken at all times to
prevent the roots from choking the drainage channels.

Sometimes trenches or furrows are formed in the face of the slope
to give the protective covering a better hold (Fig. 14); but this is
not necessary when the inclination of the slope is small. The
base is frequently finished by a stone revetment. Eevetments of
rammed earth are better and less costly than stonework, which
permits the infiltration of water. Ordinary turfing would be

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EAKTHAVOr.KS.

229

insufficient, wlulst turfs laid as in Fig. 15 would be ccstly, and
still permit water to enter between the interstices.

Frr.. 14.

Fig. 15.

In deep cuttings, and especially in those which are commanded
l>v u higher natiu'al slope, it is of great importance to check the
action of the surface water in its descent, in order to prevent the
scouring of the sides. With this object a ditch is often formed at
the foot of the natural slope (Fig. IG), as, for example, in the Morcerf

Fio 10.

Fig. 17.

and Guerard cixttings on the line from Paris to Coulommiers. This
ditch must be of clay, puddled to make it imiiermeable ; it collects
and carries off, the water coming from the higher levels. This
method is open to the objection that it disturbs the integrity of
the surface, and thu.s aftords ficilities for the percolation of water,
which may aftect the stability of the work. An open channel in
stone or brick is better (Fig. 17); but there is still a more pre-
ferable mode. This consists in dividing the face of the slope
into a niimber of stages, in such a manner that the dangerous
action of surface water is greatly reduced. Each of these benches
prevents the water from acquiring velocity as it descends the
surface, and retains it at each bench on account of a reverse
inclination of 15 per cent, being given (Fig. 18). Lastly, it con-
ducts the water by the longitudinal face towards drains laid
at intervals on the surface of the slope. These slope drains

230

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWOKKS.

arc sometimes, for the sake of economy, tnrfed as in Fig. 15, or
planked, or formed with tiles. But when they are placed so far
apart as to receive large quantities of water, it is advisahle to
construct them in masonry set in hydraulic mortar, with joints

Fig. 18.

ptTtiiTrfifTm-

Fig. 19.

faced in cement. Thus formed they should cost about 3s. 5d.
the lineal yard if 39 inches wide. The side ditches themselves
ought to be protected with stonework, especially at the bottom,
and towards the main slopes; or, at least, they should be flat
turfed.

As to the banquettes, which receive only a small quantity of
water, and the slopes of which are moderate, they are simply
covered with properly-rammed earth, or are flat turfed, the joints
being made good with vegetable mould. The revetment of a slope,
including banquettes, drains, ramming, &c., ought to cost from

about 6|c?. to 7^d. per yard, or perhaps
9 '3d. per yard, including the extra exca-
vation, which is afterwards made good
by the covering of rammed earth.^

The width of the benches may be
varied a little, in order that the general
profile of the cutting may approximate
to the curved form which a natural slope
would assume (Fig. 19).

The channels, up the side of the cutting, which take off
the water from the trench drains, may be either open in ma-
sonry, or, better (Fig. 20), formed of small stones, covered b}-
the revetment, and resting on the natural ground. It will be
convenient to make a banquette immediately over the head of

' Vide " Nouvcaii Portefeuille de ringenieur," par Perdonnet et Poloncean.
Documents, pp. 150-151.

THE CONSOLIDATION OP EARTHWORKS.

231

tlie sloping drain, to give flicility for examining and maintaining
the latter.

Fig. 20.

^'in^cJ^S*

Pipe Dhaixage.

AVlien the water-bearing seams are numerous, irregular, or
indistinct, pipe drains may be employed, wherever any discharge
(jf Avater shows itself. These form narrower channels than the
Sazilly drains already described, and this feature renders them
inefficient to draw off the water from well-defined seams. But
when these latter are more scattered, the earth has sufficient
permeability to allow the whole of the moisture to percolate to
the drains, provided only that these are placed close enough to-
gether. The drains are laid at the bottom of narrow trenches.
It is advisable to pack the joints with moss or reeds to prevent
them from being stopped up too easily ; and sometimes they are pro-
tected by sand and small stones, covered with moss, straw, or turf,
■uid the trench is finally filled with rammed earth..

In England, especially on the Croydon and Birmingham rail-

FiG. 21.

Fig. 22.

ways, the efficiency of these drains has been increased by making
numerous small openings in them enlarged towards the inside

232 THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWORKS.

(Fig. 21).^ Owing to the form of the holes, any mitd which may enter
from the outside of the drain frees itself immediately and passes
off with the water. The joints are formed with sockets. A line of
drain pipes (Fig. 22) is placed along the crest of the slope, and
from this others descend transversely into the side ditch. At
regular intervals a vertical pipe, C, rises from the main line, for
the purpose of ventilation. The circulation of air thus obtained
causes the dejiosit left in the pipe, in dry weather, to crack, and
thus it is easily removed the first time water passes through the
pipe ; but, on the other hand, this arrangement encourages a
choking vegetable growth within the drain. The pipes are laid
5 or 6 feet below the surface, towards the foot of the slope, and
3 feet beneath at the top. They are spaced about 15 feet apart.

On the railway from Blesmes to Gray, M. Ledru laid 1* 18-inch
drain pities in the slope, 39 inches below the surface (Fig. 23), and

Fig. 23.

3?-, U>

at intervals of from 10 to 20 feet, according to the moisture ;
these discharged into longitudinal collectors, placed near the side
ditches. A third central collector drained the roadway, and was
placed in connection with the two lateral drains by pipes laid
from 32 to 65 feet apart. They are formed of pipes 3 ■ 34 inches
diameter, and are covered with broken stones.

When the upper part of the bank only requires draining, it
is sufficient to lay down a longitudinal line of pipes or tubes
discharging into the open air.

M. Daigremont employed, on the Eastern railway- of France, a
system copied from Germany, or perhaps rather from England,
because it is almost identical with that described by Captain Moor-
som.'^ Drains at least 2 "36 inches diameter, surrounded by a
filtering material, and with a minimum inclination of 1 in 200,
are laid in a deep, narrow trench M N, to the rear of the top of

' Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. iv., p. 78.
- Ibid., vol. iii., p. 158.

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWORKS.

the slope D C, Fig. 2-t. On tliat side of the treucli farthest from the
face of the slope are placed small vertical pipes about 6 feet G inches

Fig. 24.

apart, and 1 • 45 inch in diameter. These pipes are stopped short
of the surfoce of the ground, and are closed at the top with plugs
of reeds, while they commimicate below with the longitudinal
drain. The trench is then filled with earth and well rammed.
Other collectors beneath the side ditches drain the formation to a
depth of about 4 feet. The mass M N E C D being thoroughly
drained by this means, acts as a counterfort to resist the thrust of
the moist ground behind M N, and the slope D C ma}" even be made
with an angle of 4.5^, It is urged against this system that the
trench M N would encourage the disintegration of the earth, and
that in bad ground the deep, narrow trenches would be costly in
execution, especially where timber was necessary. M. Daigremont
describes ^ ajiplications of this method of longitudinal trenches in
the cuttings of Petit-Croix, Dannemarie, &c., and he adds data
concerning their cost. In the Dockemberg cutting, transverse
galleries have been driven to drain the slopes.

Here may be mentioned the Ashlc}^ cutting on the Great Western
railway,'- which was drained by a system of inclined transverse
^galleries and of sumps, connected by a longitudinal gallery in such
a manner as t(j tap all the water-bearing seams. On the Great
Eastern railwaj' (lirentwood Hill cutting), the slopes were drained
by sumps filled with broken stones, and by discharge drains.* On
the Lyons railway, IM. Jullien also sank shafts to the water-bearing
deposit, and effected the drainage by discharge pipes.

A cutting in the North of Spain, on the line crossing the
Pyrenees, was attended by landslips, although the stratifications

' " Nriuveau Portcfouille de I'lugeiiicur,' par Perdonnct et Polonccau. Docu-
ments, p. 80.

- Viile ^linutcs of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. iii., p. 129.
^ Ibid., p. IGO.

234: THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWOKKS.

(marl, clay, schist, sand) were normal to the face of the upper
slope. In such a case the water is retained in pockets, and can
only be removed by a syphon. Collecting wells were sunk, and
surrounding trenches were made, as well as a system of galleries.

On the Western railway of Switzerland, M. Lelanne laid rows
■of drain pipes in the slope. Fig. 25, in such a way as to dry a

Fig. 25. Fig. 2G.

HiyWA:

''"''• r-!r^

■considerable thickness of earth. A number of pipes are joined
together with sleeves, as shown in Fig. 26, m, m. These joint-
sleeves are kept at their proper distance apart by means of an
iron wire which connects them together. The length of pipes is
then introduced into the hole formed in the face of the cutting by
a boring tool. The method is not applicable in cases where the
earth has been much disturbed. Care must be taken that the
orifices of the pipes, which project slightly from the face of the
slope, do not become choked with mud, or frozen, and the slope
ought to be well turfed under the points of discharge. Perforated
pipes would be preferable to the ordinary plain ones, which are so
easily obstructed.

In the retaining wall at Euston (London and North-Western
railway), holes were made to admit 3-inch drain pipes of cast iron,
to a distance of 4 feet. The wall was thus relieved of a thrust
which threatened its destruction. When in course of erection,
the rear face of such a wall may be provided with a kind of grating,
■discharging through perforated pipes. ^

M. Goschler gives, in his " Traite des Chemins de Fer" (vol. i.,
p. 56), examples of draining the road bed of a railway, by means
of masonry channels, or b}'' drains.

In conclusion, the mode of diaining b}' means of ela}^ pijies
cippears to be that chiefly used, and most favourably thought of.
Thanks to the play permitted by the joints, the pipes can accom-
modate themselves to slight settlements, which would of necessity
<lislocate the Sazilly drain. Besides they can be laid at a con-
.siderable depth with but little excavation, and they answer their

* Vide ^liuutcs of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. iv., p. 16.

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EAKTHWOIiKS.

233

piirpose well, when the Ijocly of water to be carried oflf is not so
' xcessivo as to require the construction of more important w^orks.
They are generally of small diameter, and arc laid in parallel
vows, following the face of the slope, discharging into longi-
tudinal collectors of larger size, placed either at the sides or
in the centre of the road bed. For these longitudinal drains the
fall ought not to be less than 1 in 200.

As examples showing the importance of the cost of drainage,
the following are borrowed from M. Couche : —

At Virecourt (Blainville-Epinal line) for 2,990 square yards of
sloj)e, there are 630 feet of secondary drains, and more than 920
feet of collectors. At Sourbourg (Strasbourg-Wissembourg) 1,290
square yards of slope are drained by 920 feet of secondary drains,
and 1,800 feet of collectors. The average cost per lineal foot of
Ihe drain, laid complete, may be taken at Id. Lastly, 2-inch
drain-pipes, sunk to a depth of 3 feet below the rails in the
Maranvillier cutting, cost about 9*^. per lineal foot.

Filters.

In water-bearing sands, which discharge from their whole mass,
drainage can only be partially successful, and it is necessary to
have recourse to filtering appliances, covering the whole of the
slope which is to be consolidated. On the Northern railway of
France a stone facing, from 4f inches to 6 inches thick, covered
with stone packing, or turf, 11^ inches thick, is adopted. A 9-inch
or 10-inch revetment is sufficient to keep out the frost which
would stop the water discharge. When there is an abundant flow
of water, the filters should be of considerable thickness, and the
best mode is then to adopt 'gravel fascines' (Fig. 27). They are

Fig. 27.

Fro. 28.

24 --

formed of envelopes of brushwood, fastened by fascine bands,

'siers, or iron wire, and well filled witlx gravel or broken stone.

These fascines are laid in horizontal furrows formed in the face

236

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EAKTHWORKS.

of the slope (Fig. 28). It is a somewhat delicate work, and nuist
he executed raj)idly, commencing from the top of the bank, so as
to avoid the inconvenience of the water passing ofi'. A laj^er of
gravel about 4 inches thick is put on to equalise the surface, then
a protective cover of flat turfing, and finally 6 inches of vegetable
earth. M. Bruere has, amongst other similar works, drained the
Schautz cutting on the Wissembourg line.

Sometimes, in very fluent sands, the side ditches of the road
bed fill in as fast as they are made. The most efticient remedy
against this is to place first two fascines, as shown in Fig. 29, and to

Fig. 29.

Fig. 30.

'^^^^^^w^^

excavate the intermediate material. At the end of a few days the
upper bed will be drained, and two other fascines may be laid at a
lower level, and so on ; finally, the ditch is lined with stone
(Fig. 30).

Ekstoring Cuttixgs after Landslips.

When a landslip is not very considerable, it is sufficient to raise
it completely and promptly, so as not to allow time for fresh slips.
The new ground is then properly drained and strengthened by
a counterfort.

On the line from London to Birmingham, and on the Croydon
railway, some local slips were restored with counterforts in dry
stone and gravel.^ The spaces between the counterforts may be
made good with rammed earth. On the South-Western railway-
hard chalk has been successfully emjiloyed in the construction of
counterforts, instead of gravel.

In the Briel cutting on the Mulhouse railway, a Sazilly drain
was made to collect the water. The cavity left by the slip was
refaced with a layer of rammed earth, and the lower points of
the Sazilly drain Avere joined with the side ditch of the way by
transverse channels. In sxich cases it may happen that the glacis,
M N, of the slip may be below the level of the side ditch ; it is

* Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. iii., p. 144.

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWORKS.

237

tlien advisaLle to make it up again with earth carefully rammed
(Fig. 31).

J^^' Ground''

Fig. 31.

-7':'4^^^rt4^' /-''-- yjy.'^j /. jJLB^d^ cT Leakage.

iT —

Certain slips on the Paris-Coulommiers line required the applica-
tion on the new ground of two or three tiers of drains, connected
with the ditch by transverse drains. '^

With landslips on a larger scale, the great labour of bodily
removing the whole of the fallen material has been sometimes
undertaken, the saturated loam being difficult to drain properly,
as, for instance, the New Cross cutting on the Croydon railway.'-^
But such a course is long and costly, and in many cases the
principal part of the fallen earth may be left in place, if care be
taken to consolidate it by the construction of drains which shall
remain connected with the points of natural outflow. This was done
successfully, for example, in the Hundsoff cutting on the Wissem-
bourg railway. An excavation, A B C D (Fig. 32), was made of

Fig. 32.

,/' . .''I^FaUaCf.Eaniu

^^^^^^^^^^^

aTLexxkat)^

sufficient extent to lay bare the undisturbed ground, and at the
foot an open drain, C, was formed. If the material be very soft
this excavation must be timbered, but it is sometimes firm enough
to allow of the earth excavated being temporarily thrown up on the
top of the slip, as at G. The drain is covered with turf, then a
rammed-carth counterfort, B D, is formed, and finally the excavation
is filled in again with the earth taken out (G). If the fall of the
glacis or water-bearing line is insignificant, it will be sufficient to

' " Traite pratique de I'cntreticn et de I'exploitation des Chemins de Fcr," par
Ch. Goschler, vol. i., p. 44.
- \ide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. iii., p. 135.

238

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWORKS.

clear away the portions, E, which have fallen on the way. The
masses at the rear will hy this time have consolidated sufficiently
to remain in place, in spite of the forward parts being removed,
and a new face slope is formed, which is covered with 12 inches of
rammed earth. The top surface of the slip ought to he evenly
dressed, and all cracks and openings stopped up, to prevent the
penetration of rain water. In landslips of considerahle length and
parallel to the way, it is advisable to form transverse cuttings at
intervals, connecting the low points of the drain with the side
ditch.

There is no cause for surprise that a bank, which has been little
more than a mass of fluent mud, can be preserved without fear if
it has been thoroughly dried. The action of water followed by a
drying process produces an active compression and cohesion. The
only danger to guard against is the return of the work to its
original state.

M. Bruere gives, in Perdonnet's Nouveau Portefeuille (Docu-
ments, page 172), details of the drainage of a landslip at Briel.
The sides of the slip were first trenched out in successive lengths
of 12 or 15 feet, and a drain constructed at the bottom, which was
covered by the earth taken out of the next length. When the
rear of the slip was reached it was necessary to proceed cautiously,
and in 10-feet lengths of well-timbered excavations, for the filter
wall. The forward portion was also drained, and supported by an
earth counterfort.

It is especially advisable, in cases where the angle of slip is

considerable, to prevent
Fig. So. ■ the recurrence of such an

accident by retaining the
ground with a rammed
earth - bank, separated
from the slip by a filter-
ing wall of broken stones
(Fig. 33).

Sometimes the slij^
hollows out the sub-
soil, remains more or
less charged with
w^ater, and tends to
fall further upon the
road bed. It is then preferable to excavate the upper portion,
MNP, Fig. 34, and at the same time the face, N P, is exposed
for drainage.

of Leakage

Fig. 34.

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EAKTHWORKS.

239

AVheu a sHi) occurs in ground wherein occur water-bearing scams
of considerable extent, it is necessary to effect the drainage by
means of gravel filters of large area. Such a work has been executed
on certain jiarts of the Soxiltz cutting (Eastern railway of France),
where a bank of clay is permeated by water-bearing lines, which,
extending for a considerable distance, produce dislocation of the
surfac3. The filter (Fig. 35) which drains the bank, discharges at
intervals into a channel formed along the centre of the road bed
and to which sufficient fall is given ; in the intervals, the filters

Fk;. 33.

drain simply into the side ditch. In other portions of the same
cutting longitudinal and parallel furrows, separated by banquettes,
were formed in the uncovered clay. These furrows were protected
by stone, and were intersected by discharge drains into the side
ditches. The whole was then re-covered with good earth, brought
down with the slip, the wet loam being carried to spoil.

It is absolutely necessary to deal with landslips with the utmost
celerity, in order to prevent their spreading, a casualty which
always renders them costly to repair, and sometimes restoration
becomes impossible. The works require careful watching for
a year or two. To clear away obstructions, to maintain the slopes,
to prevent the accumulation of water, to break the ice which in
winter stops up the drains, and to preserve and encourage the
vegetation of the slopes, are all duties which must be carefully-
performed. An obstruction of a drain reveals itself by filtration,
which appea rs on the surface of the earth revetment.

The Consolidation of Embankments.

Under the most favourable circumstances, newly-excavated
embankments of considerable height settle more or less, and this
settlement may even continue during several years. Thus it is
expedient to raise the profile of the work slightly, it being easy
to repack the ballast. Wagon-tipped banks are not so consolidated
as those formed with carts, and which are subjected to the tramp-
ling of horses. In forming a bank over culverts or other struc-

240 THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWORKS,

tures (travaux d'art), it is necessary to tip the earth equally on
both sides, and to ram it as the work proceeds, in order to avoid
throwing a mass on either side, which would produce a dangerous
thrust against the masonry.

It sometimes happens that great difficulties are encountered in
forming embankments, either on account of the nature of the
ground on which they are formed, or because of the bad material
of which they consist.

First Case. Yielding Foundations.

When the ground of the valley is compressible, or is composed
of sliding clay beds, with inclined water seams, the weight of the
embankment Avill set in motion this unstable base, which will sink
unequallj'', or slip in the direction of the transverse slope. In
the uncertain soil of Brittany upheavals from 6 feet 6 inches to
14 feet in height are noticed, which spread on each side until they
measure from 120 feet to 200 feet in length. Certain soils, peaty
from the surface downwards, sink as much under a small as under
a large bank. Others, covered with a thin but firm layer, resist
for some considerable time heavy but localised pressures ; then,
wheia the embankment becomes extended and completed, or when
its weight has been sustained during a certain time, a great
subsidence suddenly takes place, arising from the rupture of the
surface crust, and which soon spreads over the whole extent. Such
a rupture occurred, for example, on the Hanwell embankment of
the Great Western railway.^

Often the best and simplest remedy is to add new material to the
embankment as it sinks, until further settlement ceases. Banks
of this class in Brittany have thus absorbed two or three times
their original volume, and this mode may soon become too costly,
if there is not sufficient excess from adjacent work, or an amj^le
quantity within easy reach. In compact peaty ground the lower

-/-.

jiortion A, Fig, 36, assumes the form given in the sketch, without
sinking to any great depth, whilst in very soft material the bank

1 Vide Minutes of Proceedings lust. C.E., vol. iii., p. 164,

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWORKS,

241

may sink bodily to the solid bed, forcing away the yielding
groxmd on each side. In steep valleys the earth will yield on the
lower side and cause the bank to slip.

"When the faulty bed of the subsoil is too thick to be passed
througla or to be removed, two courses are commonly employed to
check derangement : to endeavour to improve the nature of the
uncertain foundation, and to reduce the pressure exerted on it by
the earthwork.

The condition of the subsoil may be sometimes improved by
compressing or confining it; for example, by driving a large
number of short piles, or by excavations in the form of truncated
pyramids, filled afterwards with comjiact clay. This is a German
method, an example of which from Hattenhofer, on the Miinich-
Augsburg line, is given in the " Annales Fran^aises des Ponts et
Chaussees," 1845. But generally the true solution consists in
draining the subsoil, which, once dried, acquires sufficient solidity.
For instance, the embankment at Val Fleury (Versailles railway)
sank, breaking up the foundation, and as it was not considered
safe to raise it again to the necessary level, the difference was
made good with trestle work. After the lapse of some years,
however, it was resolved to restore the embankment, and two large
parallel drains were formed on the lower side (Fig. 37). These

Fig. 37.

II'.- ;lr

\ ^"^ ,i:r ''*"

aJ' -.'nil >i " , "J* '•»- " ■.: :, ' V .,:? »• r Ti \

•"' ~ Parous Chalh "^

drains, from 39 feet to 50 feet in depth, were connected together,
and led all the water away in such a manner that the foundation
•was dried, and was surrounded and maintained as by a protecting
belt.

Between Otzaurte and Oazurza, in the North of Spain, moist
valleys are met with, where the soil of clay and marl slips on
schistose strata. Several embankments on the northern line
yielded at the base, and it became necessary to surround the area
on which they stood by a doiible network of drains; encircling

[1874-75. N.S.] B

212 THE CONSOLIDATION OF EARTHWOEKS.

tlitclies with discharge culverts for the surface water ; then for the
internal drainage, galleries 5 feet high and 39 inches wide were
driven along the schist, and cutting into it from 15 inches to 2(i
inches at least, in order to stoj) subsequent movement and to drain
the sliding surface. These galleries followed the irregularities of
the rock in such a manner as to involve slopes of from 1 in 33 to
1 in 17. They were then filled with a mass of broken stone,
leaving a space at the top, clear of the fissures which admit the
water. Driving such galleries is less likely to bring about land-
slips in ground of this nature than open excavation ; it should,
moreover, be more economical at depths greater than 16 feet.^

In order to reduce the weight of an embankment on the
foundation, it is necessary to construct it in light materials, and
to enlarge the base. The embankment close to the Cubsac sus-
2Dension bridge (Dordogne) was formed wdth voids in the interior
of the mass. The base is increased by reducing the slopes, or,
better, by lateral counterforts. Lastly, it is often advisable to
construct the bank on a double tier of fascines, placed obliquely
and crossing each other. These form an elastic bed, light, and
able to drain the superimposed mass ; and they prevent partial
and unequal settlements by dividing the load more uniformly over
the foundation. This was done, for example, on the Beaucaire canal.
The Chatmoss (Liverpool and Manchester railway) bank is formed
of light materials, and rests on a system of fascines.

Second Case. Sliding E.mbankments.

Embankments are sometimes executed in bad material, such as
clay more or less charged with water, or which .is easily saturated
by rain, or where the earth has been greatly disturbed, and thus
absorbs water more freely than in its natural state. Then the
rapidity of execution so frequently required, is a fertile cause of
bad construction ; work is carried on, despite inclement weather,
and mud or frozen earth is tipped on to the bank without hesitation.
The employment of large earth wagons is also objectionable, because
the material in falling assumes its natural slope, and tends to pro-
duce stratification. This is especially the case when the bank ha^^
a hearting, N, Fig. 38, formed with end-tipping wagons, while the
side portions are completed by side-tipping. Besides the inequali-
ties inseparable from constructing portions of the embankment at

1 Vide "Annales du Genie Civil," vol. iv. (18G5), p. 217. Lallour, " Sur l-.i.
stabilitc ct la consolidation dcs terrassements."

THE CONSOLroATION OF EARTHWORKS.

243

ilifforent times, and often with different materials, it may happen
that sand, or even mud, may have hcen thrown on the line of
junction a h, which pro-
duces a stratum of leak- * ^'•'* ^^'
age, coincident with the
natural slope. There can
be no cause for astonish-
ment, therefore, if the
outer part of the bank
falls in the direction a c d.

There are many prudent measures which should be adopted :
to reject all saturated earth, to stop the works entii'ely during* the
periods of heavy rains, to revet with well -rammed earth em-
bankments formed of clayey soil, &c. It is not j)0ssible in all
cases to deposit the earth from barrows, nor to lay it in horizontal
beds; these measures would be incompatible with economy and
quickness in heavy works.

But, despite some addition to the cost, the work may be pro-
ceeded with as in the case of the Manchester and Bolton railway. ^
This work was commenced bv two lateral zones, which formed
counterforts or feet to the slope of the embankment. Then, as
.soon as these zones were sufficiently raised and consolidated, a
central hearting was formed between them. In difficult cases it
is necessary to take more precautions, and to construct the lateral
zones as projecting counterforts, well bedded in the natural ground,
and to execute them in stone, turf, or, more economically, in
rammed earth, with inclined layers in a direction the reverse of
the slope of the embankment. Thus an embankment constructed
in the ordinary defective manner, with a central hearting and
lateral prisms, may be thoroughly consolidated (Fig. 39) by the

Fig. 39.

'^^^^^^^^^'^^^P^^^

addition of counterforts of carefully-rammed earth, separated from
the carthwork-by a filter of broken stone, about 1 foot thick, or by

' Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. i. (1?41), p. 114.

II 2

244

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EAKTHWOKKS.

a pile of superimposed gravel fascines. These filters keep a way
all water from tlie counterforts, which would otherwise drain into
them from the embankment. It is preferable to execute these
counterforts in advance with earth taken from the site, as at
ah c d e a; by doing this they will have time to consolidate, and
the proper slope can be given to enable them to stand until the
filling-in is completed.

Plantations of acacias or of osiers contribute to the stability of
sliding slopes. It is often useful to form, in the upper side, a lateral

ditch, collecting the water of
the slope, and carrying it off
by a culvert, without which
precaution it will collect at
the base of the bank.

On side-lying ground an

embankment may slip even if

formed in good material ; it is

necessary therefore in such

cases to trench out the natural surface (Fig. 40) in order to give

the base sufficient hold.

Fig. 40.

The Eepairs of Fallen Embankments.

"When the slope of an embankment has fallen, it is advisable to
remove the foot by short lengths (35 feet at the utmost), and to
replace the excavation at once with well-rammed earth in hori-
zontal layers, or in beds inclined the reverse way of the slope.
The retaining counterfort thus established ought to be kept dry ;
and to efiect this filter-walls of broken stone or gravel fascines
should be placed between the new and the old work. If the
weather be favourable, there should be no danger in using for
the counterfort some of the upper portion of the fallen material,
as it has been exposed to the action of the air, and may be rammed
freely. The Yilleneuve embankment (Mulhouse railway) fell for
a length of about 250 feet, and was restored for the moderate sum
of £53.

M. Bruere also repaired, at a cost of £58, the Vendeuvre em-
bankment, for a length of 230 feet. Fig. 41 shows the arrange-
ment adopted, from which it will be seen that a portion of the
fallen material was left, being covered with a counterfort of
rammed earth and new ground above, while the drainage was
cftected by means of a gravel filter standing in a brick channel.

On the Morcerf embankment (Paris- Coulommiers railway)

THE CONSOLIDATION OP EARTHWORKS.

245

the filter is of broken stone, surrounded l)y matting. At sonio
parts it was necessary to form two of these filters within the fallen

Fig. 41.

Fig. 42.

Fig. 43.

portion of the work (Fig. 42), connecting them together and with
the outside of the slope by transverse drains. Two superposed
counterforts retain the filters.

At the Yilliers embankment, on the Paris and Mulhouse rail-
way, the drainage consists of a dry stone wall, which at the same
time helps to retain the bank. The fallen slope was restored to its
original condition by means of ballast.

On the Main-Weser railway some clay embankments slipped
and were restored with sand. The result of this was that pockets
filled by sand saturated with water
w^ere formed, and these could not dry
on account of the clay surrounding
them. The drainage was effected by
making channels, in which pipes were
laid, as at A B, Fig. 43. These pipes

were covered w'ith broken stone to a depth of about 5 feet, to
ensure their permanent action, in spite of further settlement.

On the Wissembourg railway the sides of failing embankments
were drained by means of transverse trenches, in which wxre placed

Fig. 44.

■StKtLCru A.B

gravel fascines (Fig. 44), afterwards covered with a facing of good
earth, combined with the fallen material, and well rammed.

Slopes exposed to the action of water often require a protective
stone covering, to prevent erosion. On the railway from Amster-

24G THE CONSOLIDATION OF EAIITHWORKS.

dam to Rotterdaixi, fascines arc employed, combined with rnLLle^
work, the whole being well secured.^

The preceding Kotes have referred only to special difficulties
encountered by engineers in the constiaiction of earthworks for
roads and railways, without considering many of the causes of
landslips. The Author has recently (September 1874) submitted
to the Institution a Memoir on the Action of Torrents, addino-
to it, as illustrative of his remarks, a notice ]3rinted under the
auspices of the Canton of Vaud, on the ravages caused in 187;')
by the Gryonne, a torrent of the Vaudoise Alps. These earth
movements are referred to under the action of torrents and great
waters, because such movements arc often caused by them, although
they appear remote ; and it will be easily understood that if from
this cause the foot of a hill has been shaken, large areas of culti-
vation may easily be lost. What is more curious, although

belonging to the same cause, is that the works for draining
marshes will often, under certain conditions and at a given
moment, produce analogous accidents, with favourable resiilts —
the increase of the value of the land. For example, a short time
ago some slijis took place on the bank of the lake of Bienne
(Switzerland), being the first results of the work of lowering the
level of the lake, which is the same thing in eifect as laying bare
the foot of the slope which it bathes, since it deprives it of an
existing counterthrust.

Since these Notes were written the Author has witnessed a
disastrous landslip at Lausanne, in 187-1, between the station
and the town, due to the action of internal water, and at the
termination of the construction of a cutting undertaken by the
town for widening the railway. These works were conducted
Avith but few precautions, in a soil where the utmost care was
necessary, and where narrow headings ought to have been made,
and retaining walls constructed. Whatever the cause, two houses
of considerable value were destroyed, a large hotel in course
of construction was so shaken that it must be taken down, and a
new building which, owing to its resting on piles, resisted the
shock for a considerable time, is now yielding. It is true that this
latter is in the vicinity of a tunnel in course of construction, and
it is difficult for the moment to judge either the actual cause or the
comparative success that will be attained by the sj'stem of subter-

' Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. iii.. p. 170.

THE CONSOLIDATION OF EAltTHWOllKS, 247

ranciui g-allerios now being made to drain the soil, wliicU consists
of marl, clay, and sand. It would appear that the galleries have
heon driven a little too low ; but it was su})poscd that if they
Avcre higher the inhabitants of the Euc de Midi woukl have been
alarmed, and it is hojied they have nothing to fear. Careful
investigations have been made, but tlie reports of successive Com-
niissions have not j'et been published. No doubt a litigious discus-
sion will take place, on acc<junt of the large number of parties
interested.

248 MEMOIRS.

MEMOIRS OF DECEASED MEMBERS.

Mr. JOSEPH CUBITT, tlie only son of the late Sir William Cubitt,
Past-President Inst. C.E., was born on the 24th of November, 1811,
and died on the 7th of December, 1872. His father was the last
survivor of that vigorous band of men, who not only raised them-
selves from a comparatively humble position to one of distinction,
but who, in so doing, created a new profession — a profession to
which, more than to any other, is generally attributed the credit
of the rapid strides of civilisation and social improvement in the
present century. With such an introduction to life, it was natural
that Joseph Cubitt's attention should be turned to engineering in
its various branches ; and at the age of nineteen, having deter-
mined to follow his father's profession, he was placed with Messrs.
Fenton, Murray, and Jackson, of Leeds, where Mr. Benjamin
Cubitt, a brother of Sir William's, was then Managing Engineer.
A fellow pupil writes of him : — " I well remember how assiduously
and diligently Joseph applied himself to his practical education at
the vice, the bench, the lathe, and in the drawing office. It was
there, and in those departments, that our lamented friend gained
the practical knowledge that so distinguished him in all his
undertakings in after life."

After a period of two years' service in the workshops at Leeds,
Mr. Cubitt returned to assist his father, the most important work
in which he took a prominent and responsible part being the
South-Eastei'n railway. On one occasion, being placed in the
witness-box in committee on some other point, he was unexpect-
edly, and through an accidental circumstance, cross-examined on
the whole of the estimates which he had assisted his father to
j)repare. This is a trifling incident; but to go through such a
cross-examination well at his age, and with so little previous
experience, was highly creditable to a young man.

Mr. Ciibitt continued in his father's office as an assistant till the
year 1843,~when he began his independent career. His most im-
portant work was the Great Northern raihvay, which, with its
various branches, constitutes one of the leading lines of the countrr.

MEMOIRS. 249

and tlio Avorks of wliich are always acknowledged to have been
well designed and well carried ont.

Mr. Cuhitt's other works included the branch of the South-
Eastern railway from Ashford to Canterbury, Eamsgate, and Mar-
gate; the London, Chatham, and Dover railway, which, com-
mencing with the East Kent in 1853, finally grew into the present
extended system of main lines and branches ; the drainage of the
London Necropolis Company's estate, and the works for their Ceme-
tery at Woking ; Yarmouth Pier ; the Oswestry and Newtown rail-
way ; Ehymney Valley railway ; Weymouth Pier ; Carmarthen
and Cardigan railway, &c. He was consulted upon various other
works, such as the Eastern Union railway project ; the sea-wall
and esplanade at Cove ; on matters relative to the Pistoja and
Yallee railway ; the Direct Portsmouth railway, the project for
which was carried on to the deposit of plans in 1846 ; the Llynvi
A'alley railway ; on matters relating to Purton Pill on the river
Severn, in connection with the Forest of Dean railway; and the
Weaver Navigation. Mr. Cubitt was also much engaged in oppo-
sition to various bills in Parliament, and as arbitrator in disputes
connected with engineering works.

His last great work was the new bridge at Blackfriars. It
fell to Mr. Cubitt as the Engineer-in-Chief of the London, Chat-
ham, and Dover railway, to carry out the extension of that lino
into the City of London in 1860. When the design for the railway
bridge, to be built within 100 feet of the old Blackfriars Eoad
Bridge, was submitted to the Bridge House Estates Committee,
the question arose, as it was necessary that the piers of that
structure should coincide with those of the long-talked-of new Koad
Bridge, whether the time had not arrived to remove old Blackfriars
Bridge, long known to be both unstable and inconvenient. It was
soon settled that a new bridge must be built, and the Bridge
House Estates Committee called for designs from a selected number
of eminent Engineers. That sent in by Mr. Cubitt was finally
adopted and executed, and opened for public traffic by the Queen
in person on the 6th November, 1869. The design was the joint
work of Mr. Cubitt and Mr. II. Carr, M. Inst. C.E. Mr. Cubitt
was anxious that his colleague's name should appear on the records
of the bridge as joint Engineer along with his own ; l)ut that wish
was overruled Ijy the Bridge House Estates Committee, and Mr.
Cubitt's name alone was placed on the official records, Mr. Carr
remaining joint Engineer by private arrangement only. There is
one point respecting Blackfriars Bridge which, in justice to its
designers, should be put on record. No one can examine the

250 ME3I0IRS.

arrangement at the nortliem end witJioiit feeling surprise that
the roadway of the Thames Embankment was not carried nnder
the bridge and thence np towards Qneen Victoria Street, thus
avoiding the cross traffic of two main thoroughfares. In the
first instance the instructions received from the Bridge House
Estates Committee were to place the south abutment of the ne^v
design in the same position as the then existing abutment, but to
advance the northern abutment into the river 120 feet, thus giving
room to cairy forward the embankment by a land arch imder the
roadway of the bridge. This arrangement was clear and natural,
and the plans were prepared accordingly. Then came what was
known as the " Battle of the Bridge." After a time the struggle
took the form of " five arch " versus " three arch," and the advocates
of the " five arch," including Mr. Cubitt, carried the day for the
moment; but the " three-arch" party then got the position of the
abutments altered to the shore line at both ends, thus making the
bridge 180 feet longer than was at first arranged. Entirely new
competitive plans were called for, giving a " three-arch " promoter
the opportunity of converting his three-arch into a five-arch
design. This wiis the origin of the now existing cross traffic at
the north end of Blackfriars Bridge, and of the awkward shoulder
to the embankment. Mr. Cubitt had commenced a Paper on
Blackfriars Bridge for the Institution, but a claim by the con-
tractors was, and is still, undecided, and as this claim involved
questions which would have to be discussed, it was felt that it
woitld not be right thus to anticipate the evidence to be given.

Mr. Cubitt's character and natural disposition were not such as to
procure for him the prominence in the profession that he deserved.
Being of a letiring disj^osition, " his natural diffidence kept him
from pushing or asserting his proper place in the profession in
which his talents would otherwise have placed him." His firm
adherence, moreover, to the old line of practice threw him out of
the stream of modern times; he never engaged in getting u}>
schemes, but waited till called upon by those who required his
services. This was the case even with regard to the London,
Chatham, and Dover Eailway Company. Though this trait of
character did, no doubt, keep him in the background when he
might have come forward, j^et, on the other hand, combined with
his well-known truth and honour, it gave great confidence in him.
in such matters as he did undertake. No one doubted his word or
his strict justice ; directors and contractors alike placed reliance
on his decisions, whether acting as engineer on works carried out
by himself, or as arbitrator in disputes between other parties.

JIKMOIRS. 251

3[r. Oubitt was elected an Associate of the Institution on the
14tli of Febriiary, 1832, and was transferred to the class of Mcm-
liers on the 21st of January, 1840. He served as a Member of the
Council from 1847 to 1855, was again elected in 1856-7, and con-
tinued in that capacity until December 1805, Avhen he was made a
Vice-President, and at the time of his death was the senior holder
of that office.

Sill WILLIAM FAIEBAIEN, Bap.t., of Ardwick, Manchester.
F.R.S., Hon. LL.D. of the Universities of Cambridge and Edin-
Inirgh, Corresponding Member of the Institute of France, and of
the Eoyal Academy of Turin, and Knight of the Legion of Honour,
was born at Kelso, in Eoxburghshire, on the 19th of February,
1789. He died at Moor Park, in Surrey, the residence of his son-
in-law, John Frederic Bateman, Esq., F.E.S., V.P. Inst. C.E., on
the 18th of August, 1874, in his eighty-fifth year.

The Fairbairns were an agricultural family, settled on the banks
of the Tweed for many generations. Sir William's mother, whose
maiden name was Margaret Henderson, claiming descent from the
ancient line of Douglas.

Though Kelso, in the south of Scotland, was Sir William's birth-
place, in a district associated with the history and geniixs of Sir
Walter Scott — the two men, one as a boy and the other as a young-
man, being acquainted with each other — his early years were, for
the most part, spent in the Highlands. His father had removed
from Kelso to the north at the request of Mr. Mackenzie, of Allan
Grange, in Eoss-shire, to take charge of the home farm, and act
as general manager, or land steward, on the estate.

His uncle, Mr. Peter Fairbairn, was then commissioner for Lord
Seaforth, and lived near Bral)an Castle ; thus he Avas introduced
to, and became acquainted witli, the Seaforth family, whom he
often visited as a much-esteemed and valued friend in after-life.
It was here, at the parish school of JMunlochy, that he received the
principal part of his early schooling — limited, indeed, but suffi-
cient to form the groundwork on which he afterwards built up
a large amount of valuable knowledge by diligent self-culture ;
forming one of the many instances in which men, wlio have subse-
quently risen to distinction, have owed their early training to the
Scotch parochial school system. It was here, also, that his love of
mechanics was early manifested, for Fairbairn was no exception to
the rule that bids one look for infantile traits of the talents that
give a man distinction. When a child, his favourite playthings

252 MEMOIRS.

were a knife, a gimlet, and a saw, with which he made tiny hoats
and ships without mimher, and water-mills and windmills by the
dozen. One of his achievements was the construction of a wagon,
in which he was able to wheel about a little brother who was too
weak to walk. This brother, fifty years later, was the Mayor
of Leeds, the late Sir Peter Fairbairn.

The family removed from Eoss-shire to Newcastle-on-Tj^ne when
young Fairbairn was about fourteen or fifteen years of age, his
father having been appointed manager of the Percy Main Colliery.
Previous to joining his family 3'oung Fairbairn had the advantage
of some additional education with his uncle, who was parish
schoolmaster at Galashiels, from whom he learnt book-keeping
and land-surveying. At this time, in an early attempt to earn his
own livelihood, he received an injury to one of his legs, which laid
him up for several months. This period of confinement was, how-
ever, not lost, for the enforced leisure gave him the opportunity
of much profitable reflection and useful study. But his best
instructor in early life had been his mother, a woman of sincere
piety, who, by example as well as by precept, opened the minds
and hearts of her children, and whose character was of that quality
which one is accustomed to hear of in the mothers of men so
sterling and so remarkable.

At the age of sixteen, he bound himself apprentice to the owners
of the Percy IMain Colliery, where he began work under the charge
of Mr. Robinson, the Engineer, at eight shillings a week wages,
and remained till he was twenty-one. He was well prepared b}'
home experience, and by mental and physical qualities, to make a
great deal of the few opportunities which this situation oftered.
He had a hard life in many ways; and though he added to the
family income by working overtime at various employments b}''
which he could earn money, he devoted many evening hours to
anental exertion, and drew up a regular time-table of studies and
recreation, to which he adhered with wonderful steadiness. Thus
Monday in each week was set apart for " mensuration and arith-
metic ;" Tuesday was relieved with " history and poetry ;" Wed-
nesday he indulged in " general recreation, novels, and romances ;"
Thursday was devoted to " algebra and mathematics ;" Friday
followed with " Euclid and trigonometry ;" Satiirday was like
Wednesday'- ; and Sunday was a day of rest, church-going, Milton,
&c. Programmes like these have often been made, bxit have
seldom been strictly adhered to ; and one cannot but feel a tender
symjDathy for a man who, in his younger years, adopted and per-
severed in resolutions of self-culture which contributed so largely

MEMOIRS. 253

to his subsequent successful achievements. While at Percy Maiu^
he formed the acquaintance of George Stephenson, then employed
at AVillington Quay, near Newcastle ; and the acquaintance ripened
into friendship when both men had become distinguished.

On comi^leting his apprenticeship at Percy Main in 1811, then a
stalwart 3'ouug man of twenty-one, he went to seek emj)loyment
in London, accompanied by a friend and fellow-workman. They
took their passage in a South Shields collier, and were nearly
wrecked off Yarmouth in a terrific storm. Arriving in London,
he applied for work to Mr. Eennic, the father of the late Sir John
and Mr. George Eennie, and obtained it ; but such obstacles were
thrown in his way by the London mechanics' trade unions that
he was obliged to leave. Speaking on this subject in after life,
Mr. Fairbairn said : " When I first entered London, a young man
from the country had no chance whatever of success, in conse-
quence of the trade guilds and unions. I had no difficulty in
finding employment ; but before I could begin work I had to
run the gauntlet of the trade societies, and after dancing atten-
dance for nearly six weeks, with very little money in my pocket,
and having to ' box Harry ' all the time, I was ultimately declared
illegitimate, and sent adrift to seek my fortune elsewhere. Laws
of a most arbitrary character were enforced, and the unions were
governed by cliques of self-appointed officers, who never failed to
take care of their own interests."

Disappointed in London, he tried the country, and, in company
with a fellow-workman from the North, obtained temporary em-
ployment in building a windmill near Hertford. When this job
was finished they returned to London, where Fairbairn obtained
regular employment at good wages ; the principal establishment
at which he worked being Penn's engineering works at Green-
wich, where he made great progress in professional skill and
knowledge. Work failing in London, he sought employment else-
where, wandering through the towns of the AVest of England to
Dublin, where he engaged with Mr. Robinson, of the Phoenix Iron-
works, to construct machinery for making nails. The other work-
men threatened to strike ; and though their enmity did not frighten
Fairbairn from making the machine, it frightened his employer
from using the nails when made.

He was now again afloat, but attracted by the rising fame of
its manufactures, his course was steered to Manchester, where in
1814, in his twenty-fifth year, he obtained employment as a work-
ing millwright under Mr. Adam Parkinson, with whom he re-
mained two years, and until he began business on his own account.

•254 MEMOIRS.

In the same year, 1810, he inarried Miss Dorothy Marr, of
Morpeth, w]iose acquaintance he had made five years before at
Bedliugton.

From this time a full account of Sir William Fairbairn's life
would be, to a large extent, identical with a history of more than
half a century of progress in mechanical science, in the develop-
ment of the productive power of Manchester manufactures, in the
application of iron to the building of ships, in the adoption of iron
walls on land as well as on sea for purposes of military defence,
and in a wide range of invention and discovery connected with the
.strength of materials of construction, and the economy of motive
forces. Some of the greatest works of peace and Avar are associated
with Sir "William Fairbairn's name. The Britannia Bridge, over
the Menai Straits, for instance, Avhich is a wonder of the modern
world; the Millwall shipbuilding works, which he founded and
carried on for many years, till they were taken by Mr. Scott Eussell ;
and, more recently, the iron forts of plates of great thickness and
strength erected for purposes of national defence.

After commencing business, one of his first attempts to obtain
congenial employment was to comj^ete for a prize for a bridge over
the river Irwell at Blackfriars, in Manchester. His design Avas for
an iron bridge less costly and more elegant perhaps than the stone
bridge preferred and erected. Another early design was for a
conservatory and hothouse for Mr. Ilulme, of Claj'^ton, in which he
was joined by an old shopniate, Mr. James Lillie, the commence-
ment of a partnership which, under the name of Fairbairn and
Lillie, subsisted for eighteen years. They began business in a
small way, in 1817, by renting a shed at 12s. a week, and setting-
up a lathe for turning iron shafts, the motive j)ower being
•supplied by a strong Irishman. Orders came in slowly, but it
was from this commencement that one of the largest businesses,
most intimately associated Avith almost every improvement in the
mechanical arrangements connected Avith the cotton trade, was
gradually dcA^eloped.

The adA'antages resulting from preA^ous thoughtful training
upon the mechanical genius of Fairbairn soon exhibited them-
selves. In the joint career of Mr. Fairbairn and Mr. Lillie, the
former, though not deficient in any way in mechanical skill and
knowledge, Avas essentially the scientific projector, while his
partner was the practical mechanic. It was not long before this
happy combination bore the fruits Avhich might be expected from
it. The circumstances of the time and jjlace were favourable.
Cotton-spinning Avas in the early A'igour of its development ;

MEMOIRS. 255

tlic mochauical contrivances by Avliich it was carried on were
<luuisy, heavy, and unscientific. Some of the largest and most
enterprising maniifactiirers were Scotch settlers, like Mr. Fair-
liairn, whose engaging manner and evident knowledge soon gained
their confidence and orders. Messrs, Adam and George Murray,
and Ml-. John Kennedy, then a partner with Mr. McConnel, were
amongst the largest cotton-spinners in the kingdom, and his earliest
employers and patrons. Mr. Adam Murray commissioned Mr. Fair-
hairn to undertake the renewal of his mill machinery, an engage-
ment which was satisfactorily fulfilled, though from the limited
means of Fairbairn and Lillie, only by perseverance and energy.
The gearing of the mill machinery which Mr. Fairbairn under-
took to renew was, like all others of the time, of a primitive and
clums}' description, liable to frequent breakages, often repaired on
a Sunday. It was then the plan to transmit power from the
engine to the machinery by heavy cast-iron shafts revolving
slowly. Fairbairn perceived that by bringing up the speed at
once in the engine, power would be gained, and that by sub-
stituting light round shafts of wrought iron in rapid revolution to
transmit the power, the loss occasioned from the weight and friction
of tlie cumbrous machinery then in use would be avoided. He
thus diminished the weight and cost of machinery while quadrupling
its power. His next step was the invention of the circular half-lap
coupling, the adoption of which had an immediate effect on the
expansion of the cotton trade, brought the inventor into notice,
and laid, in fact, the foundation of his prosperity. Every mill-
owner wished to have the advantage of multiplied power. •

Thus, almost at a step, Mr. Fairbairn and his partner found
themselves in the front rank of engineering millwrights. Orders
came in faster than they could be executed. The firm had to
remove to larger premises in Mather Street, where they first did
the work b}' steam. This establishment was from time to time
t'xtended, till superseded by the erection of a manufactory in
<'anal Street, Ancoats, fitted up with the best machinery, for
tlie execution of the largest conti'acts. He continued to improve
cotton-spinning machinery in a manner similar to that already
described, by which friction was lessened, and the speed was
accelerated from 40 to above 300 revolutions per minute. It is,
in fact, impossible to estimate the amount of development of the
spinning trade which should be attributed to the genius and skill
of William Fairbairn. These improvements reacted beneficially
upon the silk and other textile trades which had been lagging
behind the progress in cotton.

25G MEMOIBS.

But his attention was not confined to cotton or silk-spinning
machineiy. In 1826-27, his firm fitted np the watei'-wheels for
the extensive cotton-mills belonging to Messrs. Finlay and Co. at
Catrine Bank, in Ayrshire.' In these wheels he introduced what
has Leen called the ' ventilated bucket,' an arrangement by which
the air confined in a bucket, instead of rushing back upon the
water which was filling the bucket, quietly escaped by a false
bottom, or open space, into the bucket above. The wheels at Catrine
Bank are, even at this day, among the most complete hydraulic
machines in Europe. About the time these were erected, Fairbairn
and Lillie supplied the mill gearing and water machinery for
Messrs. Escher and Co.'s large works at Zurich, in Switzerland.

Mr. Fairbairn's active mind did not allow him to rest
satisfied with improvements in cotton-spinning and hydraulic
machinery. His attention was turned to other matters of not less
moment to this country ; for they led to the general introduction of
iron for ship-building.

In the year 1829 he was employed by the Forth and Clyde Canal
Company to discover the best means of expediting the movement of
canal boats. This led to an elaborate series of experiments, to
determine the force of traction required for the attainment of
various speeds on canals, and to ascertain, under what conditions
and with what advantage, steam could be employed as the motive
force in lieu of horse-power. On this subject he published an
exhaustive report,- the result of which was the establishment
upon canals of light iron passage-boats, travelling at a speed
which at that time was not imagined possible. It was shown that
the attainment of great speed on a canal occasioned a wave which
moved the boats, if they could be maintained riding on this wave,
and that then the power required for their traction became ex-
tremely small. This riding on the wave was accomplished by
starting the boat at high speed, and was made available on many
canals by ' fly-boats,' as they were called, for carrying passengers ;
but the system was gradually discontinued, as it was not suit-
able to all canals, and could not live against the greater speed of
competing railways.

The question of canal traific was, however, of little moment com-
pared to the more important results of the experiments which

> Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. viii., pp. 45-6G.

- " Eemarks on Canal Navigation, illustrative of the advantages of the use of
steam, as a moving power in canals, etc." By W. Fairbairn. 8vo. Plates.
Manchester, 1831.

MEMOIRS. 257

had been made. Thej' directed Faii-bairn's attention to the use
of iron for ship-building, and no man has contributed more than he
<lid to the practical development of this great branch of commercial
enterprise. The first iron steamer was built by Mr. A. Manby,
at the Horseley Ironworks, in 1821, and was called the "Aaron
Manby." She was sent to London in parts, and put together in
the Surrey Canal Dock. From thence she was navigated direct
to Havre, and was employed on the Seine between that place
and Paris. The next iron steamer was also built by the Horseley
Iron Company, about 182-i or 1825 ; and shortly afterwards, Mr.
Laird, of Birkenhead, commenced building them on a large scale,
in 1831, Mr. Fairbairn built, in Manchester, a small sea-going
iron vessel, wdiich, though ten years later than the "Aaron Manby,"
was still one of the first constructed. It was carried through the
streets fo the nearest point at which it could be launched, and
floated down to the sea. In 1833 or 1834 he built another in
Manchester, and about the same time one in Selby for the Em-
peror of Kussia.

In 1835 the partnership wdth Mr. Lillie having by this time
ceased, Mr. Fairbairn w^as engaged by the millowners on the Upper
Bann, in Ireland, to report^ on the improvement of the water pow^er
of that river, by the construction of large reservoirs. In this he was
assisted by Mr. Bateman, who subsequently executed the works.

In 1836 he erected extensive ship-building premises at Mill wall,
on the Thames, where he carried on business for nearly fifteen
years, finally selling the propert}^ to Messrs. Eobinsons and Eussell,
the latter gentleman building the " Great Eastern " in the same
yard. During the time he occupied these premises about one
hundred and twenty iron ships w^ere built there, some of them of
alx)ve 2,000 tons burthen. It was one of the earliest iron-ship
yards in England, certainly the earliest of any magnitude, and its
success led to the establishment of many others.

It was in this yard that the experiments on the strength of
iron tubes were conducted, which led to the determination of
the dimensions and proportions of the Conway and Britannia
tubular iron bridges, and the law by which the power of resist-
ance of wrought iron to compression and extension is calculated.
The precise merit of Mr. Fairbairn in contributing towards the
success of the great works just referred to, and his share in the
execution, were for some time matters of dispute ; but the names

' Vkle " Reservoirs on the River Bann, etc." By W. Fairbairn. Tract. 4to.
(vdI. G . riates. Manchester, 183G.

[1874-75. N.S.] S

258 MEMOIES.

of Eobert Stephenson and William Fairbaini will be indissolubly
connected with them, and they will long remain as monuments to
the courage, the energy, and the ability of both. The facts of the
case appear to be, that the idea of crossing the Menai Straits by a
tubular bridge was due to Mr. Stephenson, who in 1845 consulted
Mr. Fairbairn as to its practicability, and invited his co-operation.
An experimental inquiry was decided upon, and the experiments
were conducted, partly at Mill wall and partly in Manchester, by
Mr. Fairbairn, under the joint direction of ]Mr. Stephenson and
himself. " There is no reason to doubt," says Mr. Smiles, " that by
far the largest share of the merit of working out the practical detail
of these structures, and thus realising Eobert Stephenson's mag-
nificent idea of the tubular bridge, belongs to Mr. Fairbairn."
Professor Eankine says,^ " Mr. Fairbairn acted along with Eobert
Stephenson in the planning and execution of the celebrated Bri-
tannia and Conway tubular bridges. The idea, which was first
carried out in these bridges, of using hollow structures, through
the interior of which the traffic should pass, was originally con-
ceived by Stephenson. The discovery of the mode of construction
by which that idea was rendered practicable, viz., a combination
of rectangular cells, is due to Mr. Fairbairn, who has since erected
more than a hundred bridges on the same principle."

Mr. Fairbairn very early directed his attention to the strength
and other properties of wrought and cast iron, and his various
recorded experiments have contributed more than those of any
other individual to the accurate knowledge now possessed. He had
the discrimination to engage in these investigations a mathematician
of considerable ability, Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson, who, previously,
was spending his mathematical power on comparatively useless
objects. Mr. Fairbairn placed the works at his disposal, sug-
gested experiments of practical value, and defrayed all the
cost which attended them. In this way they worked for years
together, Mr. Fairbairn directing the character of the experiments
and Mr. Hodgkinson deducing mathematical laws and formula? for
calculations. The volumes of the Literary and Philosophical
Society of Manchester, the British Association, and the Eoyal
Society bear ample testimony to the extent, the interest, and the
importance of these investigations.

In 1860 the Eoyal Society awarded him the Eoyal Medal " for his
various experimental inquiries on the properties of the materials
employed in mechanical construction, contained in the ' Philoso-

Vide " Imperial Dictionary of Universal Biography."

MEMOIKS. 259

phical Transactious,' and in the publications of otlicr scientific
-^iicioties." Major- General (now Sir Edward) Sahino, the Chairman
uf the meeting, in presenting the medal from the chair, after enumer-
ating his various literary contributions to science, addressed to him
the observations afterwards repeated by Lord Wrottesley : " Perhaps
it may be said with truth that there is no single individual living
who has done so much for practical science, who has made so many
•careful experimental inquiries on subjects of primary importance
to the commercial and manufacturing interests of the country, or
who has so liberally contributed them to the world."^

Nothing of practical value escaped Mr. Fairbairn in the use and
iipplication of his favourite material, iron. He invented, about
1836, the machine for riveting the iron plates of boilers, ships,
and bridges. He improved the construction of boilers, and intro-
duced the system of double flues and alternate firing, by which
fuel was economised and smoke consumed. He turned his attention
to the causes and the prevention of boiler explosions, in doing which
he elucidated the law which governs the density and force of steam.
He introduced an important improvement in the construction of
boilers, the insertion of stiftening rings at short intervals inter-
nally, as he discovered, in the course of his researches, that the
strength of a boiler was inversely as its length.

Mr. Fairbairn's professional occupations took him much abroad.
In 1837 or 1838 he was in Kussia, principally engaged there in
connection with the Government cotton-mills tinder the direction
of General Alexander Wilson, M. Inst. C.E. In 1850 he was again
in that country, when he had lengthened interviews with the
Emperor at St. Petersburg, to whom he presented his work on
tubiilar bridges,'^ and from whom he received instructions to supply
a design for a tubular bridge over the Neva. He was also in
Sweden in 1850 and 1853.

In 1839 he accepted the invitation of the Sultan of Turkey to
visit Constantinople, where he subsequently constructed manufac-
tories for small-arms, and carried out many important works for
the Government. On his return, he designed and built a corn-mill
wholly of iron,^ which, with its machinery, was sent out to Turkey
and erected for Ilalil Pasha, the Seraskier of the Turkish army.
This mill was probably the first iron house which had been built in
England.

• Vide " Proceedings of the Eoyal Society," vol. xi., p. 17.

- '• All Account of the Construction of the Britannia and Conway Tubular
Bridges." By W. Fairbairn. 8vo. Plates. London, 184'.).

* Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. ii. (1843), p. 125.

S 2

2G0 MEMOIHS.

In 1849 he visited Berlin for the purpose of laying before hi&
Majesty the King of Prussia a design for the construction of a
Avrought-iron tubular railway and road bridge on the cellular prin-
ciple across the Ehine at Cologne. This beautiful design forms the
frontispiece to the second edition of his work " On the Application
of Cast and Wrought Iron to Building Purposes," published in
1857-58. On this occasion he carried letters of introduction
from his friend, Chevalier de Bunsen, to the distinguished
author of " Cosmos," Alexander von Humboldt. The letters
fi'om Humboldt to Chevalier de Bunsen were published at
Leipzig in 1869, and in a critique on these letters, which
appeared in " Notes and Queries " (November 1869), is the follow-
ing notice : — " Mr. Fairbairn had been recommended to Humboldt
by Bunsen, then Ambassador at the Court of St. James's ; and the
' celebrated man,' the ' creator of the gigantic tubular bridge,' was
received with the utmost kindness by Humboldt as well as by
Frederick William IV. Having had a long conversation with
M. Von der Heydt, the Minister of Commerce, the latter accepted
his (Fairbairn's) plans respecting the building of bridges. Frederick
AVilliam invited him to dine at his table, and was charmed with
him, as were all who came in contact with him. ' I cannot thank
you enough,' Humboldt writes, ' for having caused me to become
iicquainted with this singularly remarkable, learned, estimable,
gentle, and modest man.' "

In 1831 the British Association was established, at a meeting at
York, by many of the most distinguished scientific men of the
age. Sir William does not appear to have been one of those
present on that occasion, but he very early joined the Association,^
and continued to be a constant attendant at its meetings, and a
contributor to its reports and transactions. In 1837 he gave to
the Association, at the request of the general committee, hi&
first report on the strength and other properties of cast iron.
]\Iany of the early founders of the Association were his close
and intimate friends. Amongst these may be mentioned (though
few, alas ! are still alive). Sir David Brewster, the Eev. William
A'^ernon Harcourt, the late Lord Wrottesle}^ Mr. Hopkins, of Cam-
bridge, Dr. Eobinson, of Armagh, and General Sir Edward Sabine ;
with all of whom, and with many other great and distinguished
men, he kept up the most friendly relations.

In 1861 he was the President of the Association at its meeting
at Manchester. On this occasion. Lord W^rottesley, in handing over
to Mr, Fairbairn the chair he had previously occupied, remarked : —
" We may derive important instruction from the career of Mr. Fair-

MEMOIRS. 261

bairn, whether wo view him as the successful engineer, or as the
vlistinguished man of science. lu the former capacity he is one who
has, by perseverance combined with talent, risen from small begin-
nings to the summit of his profession, and he forms one of that
noble class of men, the Stephensons, the Brunels, the Whitworths,
and the Armstrongs, who have conferred such important services
on their country. It is extraordinary that any man should have
been able, during the few leisure hours that can be snatched from
an important and engrossing business, to accomplish for science
what Mr. Fairbairn has done. Not only has he been a most
successful contributor to mechanical science, but his liberality has
been unbounded in placing all his great mechanical resources at
Ihe disposal of his fellow-labourers in the same field." ^

He was a warm supporter of all societies having scientific edu-
cation for their object. He co-operated with the late Dr. Birkbeck
in the establishment of Mechanics' Institutions, and was one of
the founders of that in Manchester, to which, in its early days,
he acted as secretary, and devoted much time and attention.
He was always ready to lend a helping hand to struggling
societies all over the kingdom, and to promote the knowledge of
others by imparting his own experience. This he did repeatedly
by giving popular lectures on subjects of interest in the various
matters which had engaged his own attention, and information on
vfhich he believed would be useful to others. The principal por-
tion of these lectures was subsequently collected into three volumes,
and published in 1856, 1860, and 1866 under the title of " Useful
Information for Engineers."

On the occasion of the opening of the new buildings of Owens
College, Manchester, in October 1873, he caught a severe bron-
chial cold, from which he never recovered, and to which, after a
hard struggle, his robust constitution succumbed. This was his
last public appearance.

To show the pertinacity with which, to the end, he devoted his
time and talents to the service of others, it may be mentioned that
it was his intention to have presided at a meeting of the Man-
che'feter Scientific and Mechanical Society on October 28th, 1873,
though then in his eighty-fourth year and in feeble health, and
for which he had prepared an address. That address, partly
written after Sir William had been confined to his bed, was read
by the Chairman of the meeting. Professor 0. Reynolds, of Owens
College. In it, liis last work, attention was drawn to the im-

' Vale "The Engineer," Sept. G, ISGl.

262 MEMOIRS.

portance of self-reliance and perseverance, and to the fact that in
mechanical contrivances, as in all others, the nearer the unalterable
truths of science were approached the more perfect would be the
results. He mentioned several illustrations of the advantage
to the arts and to manufactures that had resulted from strikes
of workmen, which, however inconvenient at the time, had done
good eventually, Ijy compelling emplo^^ers of labour to fall back
on their own resources, and to execute work, formerly done by
liand, by machinery and new inventions.

Sir William was an indefatigable writer, always ready to impart
his knowledge to the public, and he had great facility in literary
composition. He contributed many valuable Papers to the Literary
and Philosojjhical Society of Manchester (of which society he was
for a long time the President, occupying the chair which had been
previously filled by no less distinguished a man than Dr. Dalton),
the Manchester Geological Society, the British Association, the
Eoyal Society, " Weale's Quarterly Papers," the " Encyclopajdia
Britannica," and many others. Among these are reports to the
British Association — " On the Strength and other Properties of
Cast Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold Blast" (1837) ; " On the
Strength of Locomotive Boilers" (1853); "On the Mechanical
Properties of Metals as derived from repeated Meltings " (1853) ;
and " On the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various Tem-
peratures " (1856). In the Transactions of the Eoyal Society and
other scientific bodies there are Papers on the Iron of Great Britain,
on the Cohesive Strength of diflerent qualities of Iron, on the
Strength of Wroiight-iron Plates and their Itiveted Joints, and on
the Temj)erature of the Earth's Crust, this latter being the result
of delicate and interesting experiments carried on for many years
in conjunction with the late Mr. Hopkins, of Cambridge, to ascertain
the temperature at which liquefaction of metals and rocks under
great pressure would take place, besides others of varied interest.

Amongst his larger works, in addition to those already men-
tioned, are : " On the Application of Cast and Wrought Iron to-
Building Purposes," 1854, of which new and enlarged editions
were issued in 1858 and 1860 ; " Iron, its History, Properties, and
Processes of Manufacture," 1861, extended and elaborated from an
article communicated to the " Encyclopaidia Britannica"; and
"Mills and Millwork," 1861-3. His report on "Machinery in
General," published in connection with the Paris Exhibition of
1855, should also be mentioned.

He became a Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers in
1830, and was also a member or fellow of most of the scientific

MEBIOIRS. 263

societies in Great Britain, and of many on the Continent. He re-
ceived many decorations from abroad, and tokens of respect and
esteem at home, and in 1869 her IMajcsty created him a baronet,
in acknowledgment of his scientific attainments and services.

Hitherto this memoir has referred only to Sir William Fair-
bairn's character and progress as an engineer and a scientific
experimentalist ; but he was not more admired for these qualities
than he was beloved for his social virtues. Affable and accessible,
he was ever ready to communicate information and to give advice
to all who sought it : buoyant and cheerful, he had the happiness to
attract the esteem and afiection of all wdth whom he came in con-
tact. The moral of his life is the encouragement it affords to young-
engineers to steady perseverance and undeviating rectitude of
conduct. He was an inborn gentleman in mind, taste, and manner,
conscious of his own strength, and gratified by the approbation of
others. He was, however, singularly modest and unassuming, and
used to say, with characteristic self-depreciation, that " any man
might do all that he had done, and more, if he would only study
and work."

His remains were laid, on the 2oth August, 1874, in tlie family
vault in the churchyard of Prestwich, near Manchester, in which
were interred three sons who had died before him. His funeral
was attended by the corporate body, and by many sympathising
townsmen ; and so great was the number of people who crowded
the line of procession to show their last marks of respect, that it
became quite a public demonstration of sorrow, flis memory will
long be held in reverence and affection.

This memoir cannot be more fittingly closed than by the addition
of a letter addressed by Sir Thomas Fairbairn (Sir AVilliam's son
and successor) to George Evans, Esq., the Secretary to the Man-
chester Mechanics' Institution, in acknowledgment of a resolution
of condolence conveyed by that Institution to the members of Sir
William's family.

" Bi;imbri(lge House, Bishopstoke,
Sept. 7tli, 1874.

" He.vr Sir,

" I have the honour to acknowledge your letter of the 4th
instant, inclosing a copy of a resolution of the Board of Directors
of the JNIanchester Mechanics' Institution, expressing their sense of
the great loss which the institution has sustained in the death of
Sir William Fairbairn. May I beg of you to convey to the board
and to the members of the institution the sincere thanks of Lad}'
Fairbairn, my mother, of myself, and of every member of the

264

MEMOIRS.

family, for this most gracefiil expression of their feelings, and for
their sympathy for us all in the time of our great sorrow ? A
mechanic himself, Sir William was, in its largest and truest sense,
the friend of mechanics. He was a co-operator with Dr. Birkbeck
in the foundation of Mechanics' Institutions ; and you record with
pride, which I may be permitted cordially to share, that the first
prospectus of the Manchester Institution bore his honoured name.
His whole life was a noble example to working men. He hoped
that it might be so. He worked for good, unremittingly, unselfishly,
and he accepted the honour, wealth, and reputation which were
abundantly bestowed upon him, not in any boastful spirit, but as
the rewards of honest labour. His works were labours of love, and
I fervently pray that these, and his pure, simple, kindly nature,
will keep his memory green in the hearts and affections of all that
knew him.

" Believe me, my dear Sir,

" Very truly yours,

" Thomas Fairbaikn."

Sir CHAELES FOX was born at Derby on the 11th of March,
1810, and was the youngest of the four sons of Dr. Fox, who held
a prominent jjosition as a physician in that town. He was articled
to his brother, Mr. Douglas Fox, then practising as a surgeon, and
remained with him for some time. During this peiiod he prepared
a great deal of apparatus with his own hands for his brother's
lectures at the Mechanics' Institution, and also aided in working
out the process of casting in elastic moulds, for which the silver
medal of the Society of Arts was awarded to Mr. D. Fox. IJe
manifested from the first much mechanical skill, and took the
deepest interest, when quite a lad, in manufactures of all kinds.
The projection of the Liverpool and Manchester railway gave
increased force to his natural bent, and, being released from his
medical articles, he was taken as a puj)il by Captain Ericsson, then
of Liverpool. Whilst with that gentleman, he was engaged in
experiments upon rotary engines, and in designing and construct-
ing the " Novelty " engine, one of the three which competed
at Eainhill in October 1829. Shortly afterwards, through the
late Mr. Eobert Stephenson, M.P., Past-President Inst. C.E., he
obtained an appointment as an Assistant Engineer on the London
and Birmingham railway, then in course of construction, being
placed first under the late Mr. Buck, M. Inst. C.E., on the Wat-
ford section, and afterwards in charge of the Extension Works

MEMOIRS. 265

from Camden Town to Enston Square. Whilst upon this railway
he read a Paper before the Eoyal Institution upon the principle
of Skew Arches. Upon the conclusion of his engagement of
five years under Mr, Stephenson, ho entered into partnership
Avith the late Mr. Bramah, iinder the firm of Bramah, Fox and Co.,
and shortly afterwards, upon the retirement of Mr. Bramah,
formed the manufacturing and contracting firm of Fox, Hender-
son and Co., of London, Smethwick, and Eenfrew, who introduced
improvements in the design and manufacture of railway plant,
and especially of wheels, which they supplied in large quantities.
During his connection with this firm, he was engaged upon
some interesting experiments upon links and pins for suspen-
sion and girder bridges, the results of which were embodied in
a Paper read before the Eoyal Society on the 30th of March,
1865.^ He also introduced the switch into railway practice. The
most important work carried out by him and his partner, Mr.
John Henderson, was the erection of the building for the Exhibi-
tion of 1851 in Hyde Park. The work was commenced towards
the end of September 1850, and the Exhibition was opened by
her Majesty the Queen on the 1st of Ma}^, 1851. For his con-
nection with this work Sir Charles Fox, together with Sir William
Cubitt and Sir Joseph Paxton, received the honour of knighthood.
Subsequently^, he was employed to remove the building from Hyde
Park, and to re-erect it, with many alterations and additions, at
Sydenham, for the Crystal Palace Company. He also carried out
during this period the East Kent, the Cork and Bandon, the
Thames and Medway, the Portadown and Dungannon, the Lyons
and Geneva (eastern section), the Ma^on and Geneva (eastern
section), the \\ iesbaden, the Zealand (Denmark), and other rail-
ways. Amongst many large bridges, he executed those over the
Medway at Piochester, over the Thames at Barnes, Eichmond, and
Staines, over the Shannon, over the Saune, and over the Newark
Dyke. The roofs of the Paddington, Waterloo, and Birmingham
(New Street) stations, and also slip-roofs for several of the Eoyal
dockyards were carried out by him. He also had a considerable
share in the construction of the Berlin Waterworks.

From the year 1857, Sir Charles practised in London as a Civil
and Consulting Engineer, in partnership with his two elder sons,
Mr. Charles Douglas Fox and Mr. Francis Fox, MM. Inst. C.E.
During this time he was Engineer to the comprehensive scheme
of high-level lines at Battersea for the London and Brighton, the

' Vide •' Proceedings of the Royal Society of London," vol. xiv., p. 139.

26G MEMOIKS.

London, Chatliam and Dover, and the London and South- Western
railways, Avith the approach to the Victoria station, and the widen-
ing of the Victoria railway bridge over the Thames; to the
Queensland, Cape of Good Hope, and Canadian (narrow gauge)
railways; and, in conjunction with Mr. George Berkley, M. Inst.
C.E., to the Indian tramway, the first narrow-gauge railway in
India.

In the course of his professional duties Sir Charles met with a
severe accident, which seriously impaired his health, and to this
may, in a great measure, be traced his decease, which occurred at
Blackheath on the 14th of June, 1874, at the age of sixty-four.

Sir Charles was elected a Member of the Institution on the 13th
of January, 1838, having been proposed by Mr. George Lowe, and
seconded bj^ Mr. Eobert Stephenson and Mr. Joshua Field. He
was also a Member of various scientific societies. Until within
the last few years, he was a frequent attendant at the meetings of
the Institution, where his acknowledged j)rofessional standing,
combined with a genial presence and the almost courtly deference
with which he enunciated his opinions, always secured him an
attentive hearing. Of his private life it will suffice to say that it
was such as to claim the love and respect of all who knew him,
whilst he performed all his duties as a man and a citizen Avith the
most praiseworthy exactitude. It may indeed be said of him that
rarely has there been a more generous man or a more tender and
aifectionate parent.

Mil. JOHN GEANTHAM, the second son of the late Mr. John
Grantham, who was for several years engaged i;nder the late Mr.
Eennie in surs^eying many great works both in England and Ireland,
was born at Croydon in 1 809. After leaving school, he was engaged
with his father in surveying various lines of railway- then projected
in England, some of which were eventually carried out. He alsc>
assisted in the establishment of steam vessels and an improved
system of navigation on the canals between Dublin and Limerick,
and in the employment of steam on the river Shannon, which
system was subseqxiently taken up by the City of Dublin Steam
Packet Company, and continued until the competition of railways
diverted the traffic. Upon leaving Ireland, he, on the introduction
of the late Mr. Charles Wye AVilliams, Assoc. Inst. C.E., with
whom he resided in Liverpool, joined the late firm of Messrs.
Mather, Dixon, and Co., of wliich he was subsequently manager and
partner. In that establishment were consti'ucted large mechanical

MEMOIRS. 2G7

works, such as marine engines, locomotives, sugar-mills, and
nearly every kind of machinery. In the year 1830 he gained the
prize oftered by the London and North- Western Railway Company
for a design for drawing up, by means of stationary engines, the
passenger carriages from Lime Street to Edge Hill Station, Liver-
pool, Avliich engines are still at work for some purposes, though
locomotive power has generally superseded them. Mr. Grantham
was one of the founders of the Polytechnic Society at Liverpool,
and continued an Honorary Member till his death.

The firm of Messrs. Mather, Dixon, and Co. having ceased to
carry on business, he began practice on his own account at Liver-
pool as a Xaval Architect and Consulting Engineer, and planned
and executed several of the largest iron sailing and steam ship&
then employed in navigation, such as the " Sarah Sands," " Pacific,"
" xYntelope," " Empress Eugenie," &c. He was Engineer to the
Whitehaven Steamship Company and other companies, for whom
he constructed vessels for Australia and Egypt. He took out
several patents for screw propellers, which were then being intro-
duced, and invented a system of sheathing iron-built ships with
copper, which was afterwards employed by the Government, but
without recognition or compensation. He held for some years the
appointment of Surveyor of Passenger Steamships at Liverpool
under the Admiralty, and subsequently under the Board of Trade.

In l8o9 he left Liverpool for London, and was largely engaged
in arbitrations and consultations in cases connected wdth insurance
and casualties of the mercantile marine, and relating to the con-
struction of vessels. He designed a fleet of steam colliers, Avhich
ply between London and the north of England. In connection
wdth his brother, he, in 1860, became Engineer of the Korthern
railway of Buenos Ayres; and, in 1863, planned and executed the
first tramway in Copenhagen, which is now working wdth success.

The latter part of his life was much occupied iu the invention
and perfection of a steam tramway car, which has been success-
fully tried, and for which he held a patent ; but as the law of this
country prohibits the use of steam carriages on public roads, except
under such restrictions as to render their general emplo_)Tnent
impracticable, it has only hitherto been worked experimentally.
In foreign countries, however, wdiere no such impediments obtain,
a field appears to exist for the employment of this machine, which
is noiseless, and does not differ in general construction from the
ordinary tramway car, while it can be worked at one-half the cost
of horse power.

Mr. Grantham contributed nianj- works to engineering lite-

1268

MEMOIRS.

rature, notably a memoir "On Iron Sliipbuilding," ^ and papers to
several scientific societies. To the Institution of Civil Engineers
he presented communications " On the Stationary Engines at the
new Tunnel on the Liverpool and Manchester Eailway," - at Edge
Hill; an "Account of some Experiments on a Vessel called the
■'Liverpool Screw,' "^ which he constructed; a "Description of
the ' Vanguard ' iron steam-vessel, after being ashore on the
rocks in the Cove of Cork ;" * " Description of the ' Sarah Sands,'
and other steam-vessels, fitted with direct-acting engines and
screw propellers, without intermediate gearing;"^ and "Ocean
Steam Navigation, with a view to its further development," ''
which last embraced the most important features of an extended
view of steam communication by sea, comparing the working of
several vessels as to speed, expenditure of fuel per indicated HP.,
and discussing the bearing of the opening of the Suez Canal on
ocean steam navigation. For this Paper he received a Telford
Premium of books.

Mr. Grantham was one of the founders of the Institution of
Naval Architects, in January 1860 ; he was placed on the Council,
and remained there until his death. He communicated several
Papers to the Institution, and took an active part in its manage-
ment and proceedings.

Mr. Grantham was elected an Associate of the Institution of
Civil Engineers on the 11th of February, 1840, and was trans-
ferred to the class of Member on the 29th of November, 1864.
He latterly resided at Croydon, where he died on the 10th of
July, 1874, at the age of sixty-five, deeply regretted by a large
circle of friends, and universally respected for his exertions in sup-
port of the charitable and educational institutions of his native town.

Mr. THOMAS MAER JOHNSON was born at Appleby, in Lin-
colnshire, on the 29th of June, 182G. On leaving school, he was
articled for four years to Mr. Dykes, surveyor, of Houghton,
Yorkshire, and was afterwards engaged for two j-ears, on his
own account, in surveying and other works connected with the
Fens of Lincolnshire. He then entered the office of Mr. John

' Vide " Iron Ship-building : with Practical Illustrations." 8vo. 4to, Atlas of
Plates. London, 1858.

^ Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. i. (1841), p. 110.
3 Ibid., vol. iii., p. 71. ' Ibid., vol. iv., p. 302.

* Hid., vol. vi., p. 283. « Ibid., vol. xxix., p. 12G.

MEMOIRS. 2G&

Fowler, rast-Prcsielent Inst. C.E., with whom ho remained until
the year 1870.

Mr. Johnson early exhibited great ability and untiring energy,
with considerable skill in design, and the closest attention to those
details so important to success in engineering matters. He was^
therefore, soon intrusted by Mr. Fowler with important works,
including the Mid-Kent railway, the Farnborough Extension of
the West End and Crystal Palace railway, the Eiver Nene drainage
and navigation, and the Norfolk estuary, river, and reclamation
works. Between the years 1860 and 1869, he was, in conjunction
with Mr. B. Baker, Assoc. Inst. C.E., exclusively occupied in
carrying out, under Mr. Fowler's instructions, the works of the
^letropolitan railway system, with the exception of a few months
passed in the United States ; and it was during these years that
ho developed fully the qualities which especially distinguished
him in the professional circle in whicli he moved. These under-
takings involved some of the heaviest and most complicated
cugineeiing works of the day.

In February 1870, Mr. Johnson left Mr. Fowler and joined the-
firm of Messrs. G. Smith and Co., builders and contractors. During
the partnership, which continued up to the time of his death, this-
hrm executed several large works, amongst others, the new Town
Hall at Manchester, and Eaton Hall, Chester, the residence of the
Duke of Westminster. He also, in conjunction with Mr. William
Mills, M. Inst. C.E., superintended the design and execution of the
new Holborn Viaduct Station for the London, Chatham, and Dover
Iiailway Company.

Mr. Johnson was elected an Associate of the Institution of Civil
Engineers on the 6th of Ajjril, 1852, and was transferred to the
rank of Member on the 7th of February, 1863. He was also cor-
responding member of the American Society of Civil Engineers.
He died on the 20th of July, 1874, at the age of forty-eight.

3Iu. THOMAS LOGIN, F.K.S.E., Avas born at Stromness, in
Orkney, in 1823. He was the youngest member of the family,
and lost his father when a child, and his mother when only in his-
teens. HaA'ing a natural talent for Engineering, he was sent to
Dundee, where he passed through a coiirse of instruction, and
( il)taincd a practical knowledge by working at a factory. He went
to India in 1844; his two elder brothers, who had been brought
up to the medical profession, having lu'cceded him. His eldest

270 MEMOIRS.

l^rotlier, the late Sir Jolin Login, who afterwards became guardian
io H.H. the Maharajah Dhuleep Singh, was Kesidency Surgeon at
LiicknoM^

Having obtained an appointment in the Public Works Depart-
ment, jMr. Login served for three years under the present Major-
General Sir W. Baker, He was next engaged under the late Sir
Proby T. Cautley in the construction of the Ganges canal, and
took a leading part in establishing the works at Eoorkee. Kefer-
ring to this period, Sir Proby Cautley wrote : —

" Mr. Thomas Login, C.E., was under my orders in the Depart-
ment of Public Works, North- Western Provinces of India, from
the end of 1847 to April 1854, the date of my leaving India.

" Mr Login was employed during the whole of this time on most
important works connected with mountain torrents situated be-
tween Eoorkee and Hurdwar. Under his management the works
at Dhunowri in connection with the Eutmoo torrent, and those
for the passage of the Puttri torrent over the canal channel, were
begun and completed — the latter, as connected with springs in
which the flowings of the canal channel had to be laid 17 feet
below their surface, was a work of extraordinary difficulty and
engineering skill — the whole of the details having been carried
out by Mr. Login with great success. To Mr. Login's advice and
assistance, in fact, I consider that my design for the structure of
this work was mainly indebted."

Mr. Login was engaged in Burmali till 1856, when he was
invalided and came to England, where he remained till the autumn
of 1857. On returning to India, he was appointed successively
Executive Engineer of the Ganges and Darjeeling road, and of the
Eoorkee and Dehra roads. After this, he had charge of the
Northern Division of the Ganges canal, and in that capacity his
" fruitfulness in resources " was employed in arresting the progress
of injury to the works of the canal, which at one time threatened
to involve the necessity for laying out a large sum of money in
repairs, or of entirely closing it. Although this course was recom-
mended, it appears that, either from the measures taken by Mr.
Login or from some other cause, the canal has continued to do its
work and yield an important revenue up to the present time.
After again lieing engaged on road works, and in charge of salt-
works, he was removed to Sealkote in 1864, and made the surveys
for a projected canal in the Eechna Doab. In 1865, he was trans-
ferred to Umballa, as Executive Engineer of the 7th division of
Grand Trunk road. In 1868, he came to England, and gave
much attention to the abrading and transporting powers of water.

MEMOIRS. 271

having read papers on the subject at the meetings of the British
Association both at Norwich and at Exeter. He also submitted to
the Institution a Paper " On the Benefits of Irrigation in India,
and on the Proper Construction of Irrigating Canals,"' for which
he received a Telford Premium. If his life had been spared, he
would have been permitted to carry out experiments on a large
scale, with a view to obtain more certain data upon this important
qnestion.

The Suez Canal having been opened about the time of his
return to India, he was ordered to visit it on his way out, and
report upon it on his arrival. In passing through Egypt, he was
much impressed with the mode of cotton cultivation practised
there, which he considered had many advantages over that cus-
tomary in India, and on his arrival at Umballa, he carried out some
experiments on the ridge and furrow system, which apparently-
produced a much larger yield than the native broad-cast system.

Having been appointed Officiating Superintending Engineer at
Umballa, he acted in that capacity for two years, and his appoint-
ment to that grade was confirmed in October 1873. His labours
as Superintending Engineer of a large district were varied and
onerous, and his health was failing ; but he proceeded early in the
following year to survey and report on the roads north of Simla.
He had completed this survey, and was returning to his station,
when an attack, in the valley of the Sutlej, of fever and paralysis
ended in death, on the 5th of June, and his remains were interred
at Simla on the following day. In Mr, Login the Public Works
Department lost a talented officer of great experience, and upright
and consistent in his conduct.

Mr. Login was a Fellow of the Eoyal Society of Edinburgh. He
was elected a Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers on the
19th of May, 1868, and by the presentation to the library of copies
of various reports showed the interest he took in its prosperity.

Mr. WILLIAM KICHAED MOEEIS, only son of Mr. Joshua
Morris of Greenwich, was born on the 24th of October, 1808. He
was articled to Mr. Charles Alexander Weir, Civil Engineer and
Surveyor, and Manager of the Kent Waterworks, under whom he
was engaged in making roads in the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg
Schwcrin, in the erection of the Hammersmith Suspension Bridge,

Vide Jlinutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. xxvii., p. 471.

272 MEMOIRS.

and other works. He was aftei-w^ards employed by Sir W. Heygate
to superintend the completion of the pier at Southend, one of the
longest in the kingdom. Subsequently, he assisted the late Mr.
T. G. Barlow in designing and erecting gasworks at Vauxhall,
Lewes, Stratford-on-Avon, and other places.

In 1834, he made and published a complete survey of the parish
of Greenwich ; he was also engaged professionally by the Grand
Surrey Canal Dock Company and Lord Lonsdale. In 1835, he was
appointed superintendent of the Kent Waterworks under the late
Mr. Thomas Wicksteed, M, Inst. C.E., Consulting Engineer; on
whose resignation, in 1846, he was appointed Engineer to the
Compan3^ Under his advice and energetic management the works
of the Company were at once greatly extended. In 1856, he
reported that the river Eavensbourne, Avhich had been the source
of the Company's supply since 1688, could no longer be relied on
to meet the increasing demands of the district ; and he advised
that wells should be sunk in the chalk which underlies the Com-
pany's works at Deptford. The supply of water from this source
proved so abundant, and its quality so superior, that in the year
1863 the use of the water from the Eavensbourne was entirely
abandoned. In 1864, the North Kent Waterworks Company was
amalgamated with the Kent Waterworks Company, and to supply
this additional district Mr. Morris sunk wells into the chalk at
Crayford and at Shortlands, and from each point the Company are
now pumping a large quantity of water. The total supply in
twelve hours varies from 6,000,000 to 8,000,000 gallons, and is
believed to be the largest quantity pumped from the chalk by any
waterworks in England. Mr. Morris was no experimenting engi-
neer, but he introduced many improvements in the general design
and details of the sixteen pumping engines emjDloj'ed in the Com-
pany's works. He was the first to use the double-acting pump in
combination with the single-acting Cornish engine for waterworks
purposes, thereby avoiding the necessity of a standjiipe. By the
employment of surface condensers in combination with the engines,
he was able, by passing the whole of the water pumped through
the tubes of the condenser, to avoid the waste of the hot condensing
water inseparable from the use of the injection condenser. On the
passing of the Metropolis Water Act of 1871, he at once recom-
mended the Company to proceed with the introduction of the
constant supply to the smaller class of houses in their district.

In 1868, he experienced a slight stroke of paralysis, and though
he rallied siifficiently to attend to his business engagements, to-
wards the latter end of 1873 he became worse, and was advised to

MEMOIRS. 273

leave the neiglibonrliood. This, however, he could not bo prevailed
upon to do, and on the 11th of January, 1874, he succumbed to a
stroke of apoplexy.

The flourishing state of the Kent "Waterworks, as compared
with its position when he assumed the management, is the best
proof of his ability. He was elected a ]\Iember of the Institution
of Civil Engineers on the 1st of May, 1856, and was a Fellow of
some other Societies.

Sir JOHN EENNIE, the second son of the late Mr. John Eennic,
was born at 27 Stamford Street, Blackfriars Eoad, on the 30th of
August, 1794. After receiving the rudiments of education at
^lome he was sent first to Dr. Greenlaw's school at Isleworth, and
siibsequently to the celebrated Dr. Charles Burney , at Greenwich, On
leaving the latter, in 1809, his father determined to train him for
the engineering profession under his own eye. Sir John, accord-
ingly, entered his father's manufactory at Holland Street, Black-
friars, and was there initiated into the minutest details of the
profession, even to sawing planks, planing, and turning. From
thence he passed to the drawing office, and was afterwards taught
practical surveying by the late Mr. Francis Giles.

In 1813, having obtained a tolerable knowledge of his profes-
sion. Sir. John was placed under Mr. Ilollingsworth, the resident
engineer of Waterloo Bridge, the foundations of which he per-
sonally superintended through the severe winter of 1813-14. In
1815 the elder Eennie was appointed Engineer to the new South-
wark Bridge Company ; and, although nominating Mr. Meston
resident engineer, he in reality confided the details to his son. On
this occasion, Sir John, although a mere boy, was the first to
introduce large blocks of Scotch granite from Portishead. W ith
the exception of a short time employed with Mr. Giles in surveying
the coasts of Scotland and Ireland, for the purpose of establishing
a line of mail packets for the Government, between Portpatrick
and Donaghadee, the superintendence of Waterloo, and particularly
Southwark bridges, occupied Sir John until the opening of the
latter, in 1819 ; after which Mr. Eennie, always anxious to promote
his son's professional education in the widest and most liberal
manner, sent him abroad, to afford him the oj^portunity of studying
the works of ancient and modern engineers. How well young
Eennic profited by the opportunities thus aflforded him is attested
by the note-books he has left, replete with drawings and dcscrip-

[1874-75. N.S.] T

274 MEMOIRS.

tions of various works, as well as by tlie knowledge he acquired
of hydraulics, and his familiarity with the architectural and
engineering woi'ks of the ancients.

On the death of the elder Eennie, the b^^siness was divided
between his two elder sons, who remained in partnership as.
regards the works in Holland Street, but the principal part of the
mechanical business fell to the late Mr. G. Eennie, M. Inst. C.E.,
while the completion of the engineering works devolved principally
upon Sir John. The most important of these works was ne\\'
London Bridge. The old bridge, which narrowed at once the
trafiSc above and below its site, had long been condemned, and
numerous plans had been formed at different times for its recon-
struction, together with quays for the river banks. After long
discussion, a design of the late Mr. Eennie was, in substance,
approved of; and, on his death. Sir John was commissioned to
carry it into execution. The original plan was almost entirely
adhered to ; but the determination of the Corporation to preserve
the old bridge and its approaches, as a temporary means of commu-
nication, led to the construction of the present bridge slightly
higher up the river, together with new approaches on either side.
The disputes as to the bridge were numerous and violent, until
the construction of what was simply a great convenience for the
metropolis assumed almost the importance of a national struggle ;
and when a bill was required to give enlarged powers to the
Corporation, consequent on the necessity for fresh approaches, five
Cabinet ministers (the Duke of Wellington, the Premier, being in
the chair) sat on the select committee of the Lords, and the session
of Parliament was i)rolonged, in order to pass the bill. The new
bridge was opened by his late Majesty William IV., in 1831, and
Sir John received the honour of knighthood, — being the first of
his jirofession since Sir Hugh Mj^ddleton, similarly distinguished.

London Bridge was, however, but a part of the inheritance
which Sir John had received. The completion of Sheerness Dock-
yard, of Eamsgate Harbour, and of Plymouth Breakwater also
devolved upon him, in the capacity of Engineer to the Admiralty,
a i:)0st in which he succeeded his father.

As regards Eamsgate, originally designed and commenced b}^
Smeaton, and continued by the elder Eennie, Sir John completed
the two outer piers, besides rebuilding the greater portion of the
original structure. Over the breakwater at Plymouth he exer-
cised a general superintendence, confiding the details and personal
supervision to Mr. Whidbey; but he provided the berm on the
seaward face, where additional strength was required against the

MEMOIES. 275

action of the sea. At Woolwich lie executed a large dock, mast,
and pond, now, with the rest of the dockyard, disused ; also some
minor works at Chatham. One of his leading works was the Vic-
tualling Establishment at Plymouth, of which the machinery was
mainly designed by his brother.

At this time, and for many years afterwards, he w^as engaged
on alterations and additions to Kingstown, Portpatrick, Port-
rush, Donaghadee, Warkworth, Sunderland, IlartleiDool, Cardiff,
and Whitehaven harbours, together with the enlargement of the
Newry canal, several designs and reports for the harbours of the
Isle of Man, the bridges at Staines, New Galloway, and over the
Serpentine, the latter designed by the late Mr. Kennie.

In the drainage and reclamation of land, Sir John followed in
the footsteps of his father, although he had not actually to carry
out any specific designs. Among the works of this class maj""
be mentioned the completion, in 1822, of the Eau Brink cut, near
King's Lj-nn, by which a lowering of w^ater of 7 feet was gained
in the Ouse ; the construction, in conjunction with the late Mr.
Telford, of the Nene outfall below Wisbeach, w^hich had the effect
of similarly depressing the water-level by from 10 feet 6 inches to
1 1 feet, and which would have been still greater, had not strong
opposition prevented the improvements being carried to the higher
grounds at Peterborough, as was originally intended. These works
were begun in 1826, and finished in 1831. Subsequently Sir John
reported, for the Duke of Bedford, on the drainage of Whittlesea
Mere and the surrounding fens, an area of 50,000 acres ; but his
plan, owing to the opposition of conflicting interests, was never
carried into effect. In 1827-8 he restored the harbour of Boston,
which, owing to neglect and bad management, had been nearly
ruined, by forming a new channel, 1 mile in length, for a portion
of the course of the Witham below the town. At an expense not
exceeding £33,000, the navigation was so improved, that the town
was accessible to vessels drawing 15 feet to 16 feet at spring tides,
and from 1 2 feet to 1 3 feet at neaps. Besides the above. Sir John
executed various improvements on the Welland ; the effect of the
whole being to improve the drainage of nearly 800,000 acres, and
to reclaim 6,000 additional acres previously useless.

As may be imagined. Sir John, constantly employed on these
works, so congenial to his tastes, could not fail to form somo
comprehensive plan for the entire district. Accordingly, when a
committee of the leading landowners requested him to survey
and report upon all the rivers falling into the AVash, he devoted a
year to a thorough examination, not only of the rivers, but of

T 2

276 JIEMOIKS.

the Wash itself, and elaborated a scheme by which the navigation
of the Nene, Ouse, Welland, and Witham would have been im-
proved, the water lowered, and from 150,000 to 200,000 acres of
land reclaimed from the sea. But this scheme appeared too great
for realisation, and it was subsequently considerably reduced, and
divided into two, of which the Norfolk Estuary ComjDany pro-
posed to reclaim about 40,000 acres, and the Lincolnshire Comi^any
a somewhat less amount. Eventually the opposition of the Lin-
colnshire landholders, who feared for their foreshore rights, led
to the latter scheme being abandoned ; while the Norfolk Estuary
Company was so hampered by conditions and obligations, that,
though still in existence, it has as yet inclosed but a very small
portion of land. One benefit, however, was derived from their
operations. The plan included a new channel for the mouth of
the Ouse ; this, the first Avork undertaken, besides greatly im-
proving the port of Lynn, has been instrumental, in conjunction
with the Eau Brink cut, in lowering the water in the Ouse to
11 feet below its former level. In spite of this failure, and two
others somewhat similar in Holland and on the Essex coast. Sir
John always upheld the feasibility and great value of these recla-
mations. He maintained that at least 600,000 acres in England
and Scotland would amply repay the trouble and expense of in-
closure, besides adding greatly to the permanent wealth of the
country, and he has left in manuscript numerous suggestions as
to the mode in which these may be efiected.

In 1 825-6 Sir John, in partnership with his brother, made his
first contribution to railwa3'^s by designing the Manchester and
Liverpool line. Ultimately, however, the direction was conferred
upon Mr. G. Stephenson. For this line the Messrs. Eennie, after
a very careful investigation, decided that the gauge should be 5
feet 6 inches, a medium between the present broad and narrow
gauges ; but when the control of the works was conferred upon
Mr. Stephenson, he adopted the old colliery gauge of 4 feet 8i
inches, which, as the narrow gauge, has since become universal.

From that time until the great extension of the railway system
in 184-^5, Sir John Eennie had but little to do with this branch
of the profession, confining himself principally to hydraulics ; and,
though he prepared several bills, the lines were not carried out,
but several have since been constructed on similar plans to those
he proposed. It may here be mentioned that his princiiDle in
laying down a line was to make it as direct as possible, tapping
the districts which lay on either side of the main line by nearly
straight branches.

MEMOIRS. 277

III 1852 he laid out a system of railways for Sweden, for which
ho received the Order of Gixstavus Wasa ; and three years after-
wards, in 1855, he designed a series of railways and five harbours
for Portugal, including a harbour of refuge for Oporto ; none of
which, however, were carried out, though he was subsequently
commissioned to erect a breakwater at Ponte Delgada, at the isle
of St. Michaels, one of the Azores, and the chief seat of the orange
trade. For these services he received the Portuguese Order of the
Tower and Sword. In 1861 he was invited by the Corporation of
the City of London to submit competitive plans for the rebuilding
of Blackfriars Bridge. In the succeeding year he reported to the
Municipality of Vienna on supplying the city with water, and in
1862 he was Chaii'man of the Civil Engineering section of the
International Exhibition. This was almost the last of his public
acts ; he shortly afterwards retired from the Norfolk Estuary
works, and Eamsgate Harbour being acquired by the Government,
he ceased to be the inspecting engineer. From this time he seldom
appeared in public save at the Eoyal Society Club, of which he
was remarkably fond. He occuiiied his leisure with the composi-
tion of several works, especially on hydraulics, which remain in
manuscript.

The mechanical achievements, of which Sir John Eennie could
claim a share, were mostly carried out in connection with his
brother, the late Mr. George Eennie, M. Inst. C.E., to whose
memoir reference may be made.'

Sir John Eennie might, in his declining years, have claimed
the title of " Dean of the Faculty of Engineers." He stood alone,
the last of a bygone race, a link connecting the Brindleys, the
Smeatons, the Eennies, and the Telfords of the old system with
the Stephensons and the Brunels of the new. His presidential
address to the Institution in 1846 was a complete history of the
rise and progress of the profession ; "^ while the monograph on
Plymouth Breakwater and, still more, his work on British and
Foreign Harboiirs, for which he received tokens of honour from
the sovereigns both of Eussia and Austria, are no insignificant
memorials of literary skill. He contributed the following Papers
to the Institution : — " An Account of the Drainage of the Level of
Ancholme, Lincolnshire;"^ " On the Ancient Harbour of Ostia;"*
iind " On the improvement of the Navigation of the Eiver Newry." '^

' Viile Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. xxviii., p. 610.
- Ibid., vol. v., p. 19. ' Ibid., vol. iv., p. 18G.

' Ibid., vol. iv., p. 307. * Ibid., vol. x., p. 277.

278

MEMOIES.

In his retirement he addressed several letters to " The Times "
on the drainage and improvement of land, and the storage of
water and regulation of rivers. A letter on the management
of the rivers and marshes of Italy having attracted the notice of
tSignor Sella, then premier, procured for him the Order of St.
Maurice and Lazare.

It only remains to add that Sir John's acquirements extended
much heyond his profession. Understanding several languages, he
was extensively versed in general literature. He was long a
Member of the Koyal Society, and other scientific bodies; and
was one of the first persons to whom Sir Humphry Davy applied
when forming the Zoological Society.

Of his personal character one trait may be sufficient. Through-
out his lengthened career, and in spite of the numerous disputes in
Avhich he was involved, he never bore a moment's envy or malice
against any human being. His posthumous memoirs arc full of
the kindest notices of all with whom he came in contact; and
whenever he had occasion to notice the Stephensons and their
works, it is with a eulogy which their most devoted adherents
might rival but could not surpass.

Sir John Eennie was elected a Member of the Institution on the
25th of June, 1844; he became President on the 21st of January,
1845, retaining the office for three years. He died at Bengeo, near
Hertford, on the 3rd of September, 1874, just after completing his
eightieth year.

Mr. JAMES EAINE KUSHTON was the second son of the late
Edward Eushton, stipendiary magistrate of Liverpool. Having
shown a strong natural aptitude for mechanics, he was, under the
advice of the late Mr. James Walker, Past-President Inst. C.E,,
removed at an early age from the London University School, and
placed as an apprentice with Messrs. Fawcett, Preston, and Co.,
mechanical engineers of Liverpool, with whom he remained
for five years. He then entered the locomotive shops of the
Liverpool and Manchester Eailway Comi^any, and obtained a
thorough knowledge of locomotive work. Next he was for three
years in the office of Mr. Edward Woods, M. Inst. C.E., who
was then in charge of the old Liverpool and Manchester rail-
way. On the amalgamation of the above line with the Grand
Junction and London and Birmingham lines, Mr. Woods was
appointed Engineer for the construction of new works on the
northern division of the amalgamated lines; and Mr. Eushton

MEMOIES. 279

became his assistant on the extensions in Liverpool and the neigh-
bourhood, which included the alterations of some of the existing
tunnels, and the terminal passenger and goods stations. After this
he was engaged as Eesident Engineer of tlie Victoria Tunnel, under
the town of Liverpool and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal, which
connects Edge Hill Station with what was then the northern
portion of the Liverpool Docks. That tunnel presents a fine
example of masonry, the result of the constant and untiring super-
vision which Mr. Rushtou exercised during its construction. About
this time he was appointed one of the Admiralty Surveyors of
Marine Steam Machinery. On the formation of the staff for the
construction of the Egyptian railway, by the late Mi\ Eobert Ste-
phenson, M.P., Past-President Inst, C.E., Mr. Rushton was selected
as one of the Engineers. He proceeded to Egypt in the autumn of
1851 ; and after the completion of the line entered the service of
the Egyptian Government. Li the year 1859 he was appointed a
first-class Engineer on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, and,
on his arrival in India, became Resident Engineer of No. 16 Con-
tract. While engaged in this capacity he made the acquaintance
of Mr. Bcddy, the Assistant Commissioner in charge of the town of
Ilurdah, a dirty and neglected place, under whose auspices Mr.
Rushton planned and carried out a water supply and excellent mu-
nicipal arrangements and striking improvements, and " Hurdah is

now as perfect a little model town as can be found in India

The water scheme, ' Rushton Square,' and the ' Rushton Clock-
tower ' at Ilurdah, will long remain to show the interest that Mr.
Rushton took in all matters connected with the welfare of the
• people among whom he lived." For these services he received the
thanks of the Chief Commissioner of the Central Provinces, in a
letter dated the 23rd of June, 1866.

On the resignation of Mr. Graham, Mr. Rushton was selected, in
July 1865, to fill his place as Chief Resident Engineer ; and he
entered upon the duties of his office on the 14th of September fol-
lowing. Soon after he succeeded to this responsible post, several
of the masonry works showed signs of weakness or failed. To the
onerous task of restoring these works Mr. Rushton successfully
applied his experience and great engineering ability. In conjunction
with the Company's Consulting Engineer he prepared the designs (as
well as those of less important works) for the reconstruction of the
Mhow-ke-Mullee and Towah viaducts. The latter, now known by
the name of the " Alfred Bridge," was opened by the Duke of
Edinburgh on the 9 th of March, 1870, and has been designated, by
those most capable of forming a correct opinion, " a magnificent

280 MEMOIRS.

and xinique work." It was pronounced by Mr. Turnbull, Engineer
of the East Indian railway, to be by far the most striking work
of railway masonry in India ; and the Chief Commissioner of the
Central Provinces declared his admiration of the excellence and
beauty of the work, which would, he thought, in all probability,,
last for ages.

Mr. Eushton's connection with the Great Indian Peninsula Rail-
way Company terminated in 1868; and in the same j^ear, and
about the same time, the agent of the company, General Elvers,
also retired. Previously to their departure from India, a fare-
well dinner was given to them by the staff of the railway com-
pany and other gentlemen. On this occasion Mr. Eushton was
presented with an address ; and a sum of nearly £1,000, subscribed
by the employes of the Company, was soon after forwarded to the
Messrs. Elkington, in England, for a service of plate, the selection
of which was left to Mr. Eushton.

With Mr. Eushton's arrival in England, in November 1868, his.
professional career closed. Eighteen years passed in Egypt and the
East, with but two short intervals of repose, had told upon a con-
stitution originally strong. He had long suffered from a painful
affection of the throat, which ultimately terminated in bron-
chitis. He died on the 10th of June, 1873, in Liverpool, at the
comparatively early age of fifty years. In his profession he was an
honest worker ; in his habits retiring and abstemious ; and in the
general relations of life he bore himself as a generous, temperate,
and high-principled man. Of his skill as an Engineer his works-
give evidence; for his character as a man, the testimony of his
friends.

Mr. Eushton was elected a Member of the Institution of Civil
Engineers on the 4th of December, 1866.

Mu. JAMES SAMUEL was born at Glasgow on the 21st of March,
1824. He was educated at the High School of that city, and
afterwards attended the classes for engineering by Professor
Lewis Gordon at the Glasgow University. In April 1839 he
was articled to Mr. Daniel Mackain, M. Inst. C.E., engineer of
the Glasgow Waterworks, and subsequently held for three years
the position of resident engineer at the Printing, Dyeing and
Bleaching Works of his father near Glasgow, for which he designed
and sujierintended the construction of the buildings, machinery,
reservoirs, watercourses, &c. He came up to London, and was

MEMOIRS. 281

appointed resident engineei- of the Eastern Counties railway in
-lanuary 1846, which position he held till June 1850. It was
during his connection with this railway that, in conjunction with
Messrs. Adams and Kichardson, ho brought out the fish-joint
patent, to the improvement and development of which he devoted
years of study and labour, and which, under various modifications,
has been adopted on all railways. He likewise carried out
numerous experiments on light engines and steam carriages on
railways with the object of reducing the weight and cost of the
rolling stock, with very satisfactory results.

Between the years of 1851 and 1858 he constructed successively
the Morayshire, the Newmarket, the Llanelly extension, and Yale
of Towy railways ; also the new stone bridge over the river Avon
at Evesham.

Early in 1858 he made, in conjunction with Mr. John Pitt
Kennedy, M. Inst. C.E., the plans and estimates for the line of
railway from Smyrna to Cassaba, and thence to Ushak, in Asia
Minor, the former part of which railway has since been carried
out by Mr. Edward Purser, M. Inst. C.E. In 1861 he went out
to the United States to report upon and estimate for the completion
of the Grand Eapids and Indiana railway, in the State of Michigan.
He was then continuous!}' engaged in inspecting and reporting
upon various railways in Austria, France, Germany, and Eussia.
In May 1863 he accompanied a part}' of engineers to examine
and report upon the feasibility of constructing a ship canal from
the i)ort of Grey town, on the Atlantic, up the river San Juan, and
through the lakes of Nicaragua and Managua, to the bay of
Tamarindo, on the Pacific Ocean ; but, after a careful examina-
tion, he found that the cost of this route, as laid down by the
French Engineers — from whose preliminary surveys the scheme
originated — would be far in excess of that contemplated by the
promoters, and the project was abandoned.

In the beginning of 1804 he was aj^pointed, together with
Colonel Talcott, joint engineer in chief of the Mexican railway-
from the port of Vera Cruz to the cities of Puebla and Mexico,
(.'olonel Talcott retired from his connection with the line at the
latter end of 1866. In 1871 and 1872 Mr. Samuel carried out a
railway of 3 feet gauge in Cape Breton for developing the exten-
sive coal mines in that region. In 1869 he exchanged the appoint-
ment of chief engineer to the Mexican railway for that of con-
sulting engineer, a post he held till his death, whicli took place
on the 25th of May, 1874, of paralysis, after an illness of three
months.

"282 MEMOIRS.

Mr. Samuel was elected a Member of the Institution on the
Mh. of June, 1849. He was a man of good commercial acumen
and sound judgment ; but his temperament was very sanguine, and
lie was easily led. His taste for inventing amounted to a passion,
and he was always taking out patents, as well as becoming inter-
ested in the patents of other persons.

]\Ir. THOMAS ALFEED YAEEOW was born in London in
October 1817, and educated at the Military College, Sandhurst.
In early life he was engaged under Mr. Edward Dixon, M. Inst.
C.E., during the construction of the London and South-Western
railway, and afterwards with his uncle, Mr, John Dixon, upon
the construction of the Chester and Birkenhead railway. On the
completion of the works, Mr. Dixon removed to Birmingham, and
Mr. Yarrow was appointed Resident Engineer, which position he
filled for some time, and, during the tenure of this engagement,
designed and carried out the tunnel from the old terminus in
Birkenhead to the Monk's Ferry. He then entered into general
practice as an Engineer at Birkenhead, and was occupied in the
design and execution of several important works, besides being
frequently consulted upon some of the many schemes for the im-
provement of that rapidly-advancing district. Mr. Yarrow was
subsequently appointed Surveyor and Bridgemaster to the County
of Chester, when he designed and carried out several new bridges
and other works for the county. In 1847, he retired from this
l^osition and made a professional tour on the Continent. On his
return, he commenced to practise in London, and was engaged
principally in connection with railways and sanitary works, among
the latter being the purification of the sewage of the Fulham
district by peat charcoal, which, so long as the works were in
operation, was carried on successfully; a large quantity of the
otBuent water being profitably applied to the market gardens in
the neighbourhood.

In 1856, Mr. Yarrow became Consulting Engineer to the Scinde
Eailway Company, and soon after to the allied companies, the
Punjab railway and the Indus Steam Flotilla. He manifested
much energy and talent in the performance of the duties connected
with these important appointments, taking charge of the constmc-
tion in England of the iron bridges, engines, and machinery.
Towards the close of the year 1861, failing health, arising from
unremitting attention and anxiety, necessitated his retirement

MEMOIRS. 283

from oflBce; and he was succeeded by Mr. G. V. Bidder, Past-
President Inst. C.E.

From this time the state of Mr. Yarrow's health no longer per-
mitted him to pursue the active exercise of his profession, but he
still continued to take a lively interest in everything connected
with engineering, more particularly in what related to India ; and
he was a strong advocate for maintaining the 5 feet G inches
gauge for at least the main and principal lines of railway in that
country.

Mr. Yarrow's personal character was genial and warm-hearted,
and although of late years the state of his health did not jDcrmit
him to mix much in the society of his professional brethren, yet
towards those who were associated with hiin in early life he con-
tinued to cherish the warmest friendship and to take a sympa-
thising interest in their pursuits.

lie was elected a Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers
on the 3rd of Februar}^, 1857, and was at first a frequent attendant
at the Meetings. He died on the 11th of September, 1874, in the
fifty-seventh year of his age.

Mr. JAMES ALLAN, senior Managing Director of the Peninsular
and Oriental Steam Navigation Company, was a native of Aber-
deen, and whilst still a lad, entered as a junior clerk the engineer-
ing works of Messrs. John Duffus and Co., of that city. This firm,
then recently established, was one of the largest in Scotland, and
they opened and owned for many years a line of steamers between
Aberdeen and London, building two vessels, the " Queen of Scot-
land " and the " Duke of Wellington," for the purpose. In
1832 a friendship sj)rang up between Mr. Allan and Mr. John
Bourne, then commencing his engineering career at the same
works, and when in 1833 the latter was transferred to Messrs.
Caird and Co.'s, of Greenock, he induced his father, the late Captain
Bourne, to give Mr. Allan employment as a clerk in the Dublin
and London Steam Company's office in Dublin, of which company
Captain Bourne was the director, and he and his brothers the
chief proprietors. This was done with the concurrence of Messrs.
Lufius and Co., who behaved in a very friendly way to Mr. Allan,
and who considered that his opportunities for advancement would
be greater in the new sphere thus opened. The company had a
repairing shop at the North Wall, the books of which Mr. Allan
kept. But as that duty alone did not afford him sufficient occupa-

284 MEMOIRS.

tion, lie also asbisted the book-keeper at the company's chief office,
Eden Quay. Mr. Morgan, the company's book-keeper, having sud-
denly died of cholera, Mr. Allan was the only other person who
understood the books, and his efficiency in the performance of his
duties led to his being appointed to the post.

About the year 1838, circumstances induced Captain Bourne to
remove to London, and Mr. Allan accompanied him as his secretary
and assistant. Captain Bourne's various undertakings had by this
time become consolidated in an enterprise known as the Peninsular
Steam Navigation Company, the parent of the existing Peninsular
and Oriental Company. The Peninsular Company, in common
with most new companies, disappointed expectation at first. The
receipts were less than was expected ; the expenses more. It was
the first company which ran steamers to distant foreign ports, and
would, under any circumstances, have been an arduous undertaking
for a few private persons to carry out. Besides, the Messrs. Bourne,
on whom the burden really devolved, were now past the prime of
life, and from this, and various other causes, Mr. Allan's duties in
London became of a very anxious and arduous character. They
were, however, faithfully and successfully performed ; and w^hen
in 1840 the Peninsular Company became a joint-stock undertaking,
and extended its operations to Egypt, and finally to India, Mr.
Allan became the Secretary to the new company. In this capacity
he did not restrict his attention to technical duties, but practically
acted as one of the managers, and had a large share in directing
its policy. He often astonished his colleagues by the extent of his
knowledge on engineering subjects, and in all such questions the}'
soon came to defer to his oj)inion. He drew up a set of rules to be
observed, and of duties to be performed, by ever}- officer on board
the different steamers — being probably the earliest example of
such a code of regulations. He took the chief part in guiding the
company to the adoption of oscillating engines, tubular boilers, and
iron ships — then generally regarded as hazardous innovations —
and all his recommendations turned out to be right ; while they
had the rare merit of being also early. No doubt he w^as aided in
coming to these conclusions by his friend Mr. Bourne : but he had
the valuable faculty of profiting by the knowledge of others, as
well as by the results of his own experience and observations, and
also of creating the disposition on the part of others to render him
any service in their power.

At the time of the expansion of the Peninsular into the Penin-
sular and Oriental Company, the Transatlantic Company, esta-
blished to trade across the Atlantic, and owTiing two steamers, the

MEMOIRS. 285

*' Liverpool " and the " United States," afterwards called the
"Oriental," was simultaneously absorbed; and, in 1848, Mr. Allan
was, by general consent, appointed a managing director of the
Peninsular and Oriental Company. Subsequently, the two other
managing directors died, and he thus became the senior, and so
continued up to the time of his death.

In a life such as Mr. Allan's there are no romantic incidents to
record, nor any startling achievements. His career was one of steady
industry and intelligent supervision. Without marked energy
either of intellect or of action, his progress was rendered sure b}'
the wisdom of his judgments, which were singularly tmdisturbed
by any emotion of interest or of temper, and by his amiability of
character, which disarmed hostility. Large-minded and generous,
above petty jealousies or suspicions, with a temper which could
hardly be rufifled, and a patience which could hardly be wearied,
he inspired a confidence not to be shaken, and won not merely
universal esteem, but universal affection. Several years ago the
employes of the Peninsular and Oriental Company raised, unknown
to Mr. Allan, a subscription of £5,000 for a service of plate,
which was duly presented with the sanction of the directors.
Such testimony was hardly needed to show how much he was
respected and beloved by the persons who had the best means
of knowing him. Mr. Allan died, after a brief illness, at Camp's
Hill, Lewisham, on the loth of October, 1874, aged sixty-three.
He was elected an Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers
on the 4th of December, 1849.

Lieutenant GOEDON BIGSBY, K.E., the second surviving son
of the Eev. Charles Bigsby, M.A., Kector of Bidborough, Kent, was
educated at Marlborough College under Dr. Cotton, and received
his commission in the Eoyal Engineers in 1858. After spending
four and a half years on Government works at home, he in 1864
proceeded to India, and was appointed Assistant to the Super-
intendent of the Kurrachee Harbour Works. While serving in
this capacity, he computed " Tide Tables of the Port of Kurra-
chee for the year 1865," for which he received the thanks of the
Bombay Government. On leaving Kurrachee, he was nominated
for special duty to report on the Anglo-Indian Telegraph in
Arabia, Persia, and Beloochistan. In April 1866 he became
Executive Engineer of Chanda, in the Central I'rovinces, and was
complimented on the works by the local Government. In India,

286 MEMOIRS.

where clerks of works do not exist, every plan, design, and estimate
have to be prepared by the Engineer, or under his close super-
vision. In this department Lieutenant Bigsby won great credit,
and was always reported on as " an officer of the highest ability
and efficiency." After a short service as Executive Engineer in
the Bengal P. W. D., Lieutenant, or rather Captain, Bigsby (he
took the latter rank in India) in 1869 took charge of the works in
the territories of the Maharajah of Bhurtpore. In 1873, having
lost his health, he returned to England ; but, unhappily, the
disease engendered by residence in a tropical climate had taken
too firm hold to be got rid of, and he died at sea on a voyage to
Canada, at the early age of thirty -five. Lieutenant Bigsby was
elected an Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers on the
3rd of December, 1867, and always expressed regret that residence
abroad prevented his taking an active share in its proceedings.

Mr. THOMAS GAUL BROWNING was born on the 5th of June,
1831. When fifteen years old he was articled to Mr. Ware, Archi-
tect and Builder, of Exeter, with whom he remained until he was
twenty-one. During his pupilage he obtained a prize given by
the Mayor of Plymouth for " the best set of drawings and jAan for
a gentleman's mansion," to be competed for by apprentices only.
After a short service under Mr. Cummings, the late City Surveyor
of Exeter, Mr. Browning in April 1853 came to London, and entered
the office of Mr. Seth Smith, the eminent builder, of Pimlico, when
he was chiefly occupied in superintending Government hydraulic
works at Woolwich. About March 1855, he was appointed a
clerk of works under the Metropolitan Commissioners of Sewers,
and subsequently, on the formation of the Metropolitan Board of
Works, became Assistant Surveyor of the parish of Marylebone.
Such a position in one of the wealthiest and most populous of the
metropolitan parishes, always one of great responsibility, became
doubly arduous at this time, and required the most unremit-
ting attention. The Metropolitan Railway Company was slowlj-
burrowing a tunnel through the heart of the parish, closing streets,
diverting sewers, undermining houses, and otherwise trespassing
in a domain hitherto sacred to the parochial authorities. Simul-
taneously with these works, among the heaviest and most com-
plicated in modern engineering, many miles of new sewers had to
be built, besides the less onerous, but scarcely less important, work
of maintaining the streets and roads in an efficient state. Mr.

MEMOIRS. 287

lirowning, however, gave such satisfaction in the performance of
his varied functions that in March 1866, on the retirement of the
Chief Surveyor, ho was appointed his successor. He was one of
the first to advise the employment of the steam roller and the snow
plough in a metropolitan parish, and he devoted much time and
thought to the perfection of a new fire escape, which was on the
point of being introduced when its inventor was suddenly cuf off
in the forty-second year of his age, after a brief illness. Mr.
Browning was much and deservedly respected in the parish of
Marylebone as a most conscientious, able, and hardworking officer,
who laboured early and late in the performance of his duty.

He was elected an Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers
on the 2nd of December, 1862, and died on the 30th of December,
1873.

Mr. CORNELIUS WILLES EBOEALL was born in Birmingham
in the year 1820. He was the son of Lieutenant Eborall, E.N.,
well known as manager of the Birmingham District Fire Office,
and, subsequently, for many years the Goods Manager of the Grand
Junction Railway Company, which post he retained on the amal-
gamation of that company with the London and Birmingham, noAv
the London and North- Western Railway Company. Mr. Eborall
received his early education in railway matters in his father's office.
About the year 1847 he was appointed Goods Manager to the
Sheffield Company, and succeeded Mr. James Meadows as General
Manager of that line in 1849.

In 1850 he became the General Manager of the East Lancashire
Railway Company, the fortunes of which at that time were at a
very low ebb. Under Mr. Eborall, however, the property mate-
rially improved, and in 1858 it was amalgamated with the Lanca-
shire and Yorkshire Railway Company upon equal terms. Mr.
Eborall remained in that office until the year 1856, when he was
appointed General Manager of the South-Eastern Company, under
the Chairmanship of the Hon. James Byng, and subsequently of
Sir Edward AVilliam Watkin, M.P., both of whom always enter-
tained towards him the warmest feelings of personal friendship.
His career during the last twenty years of his life was one of
xininterrupted success. Filling a position the qualifications for
which combined as much diplomacy as technical knowledge, Mr.
Eborall's ability, special business aptitude, and conscientious zeal
enabled him to overcome difficulties otherwise apparently insur-
mountable. His amiability of manner, his kind consideration for

288 MEMOIRS.

the views and opinions of those who diflfered from him in the dnties
of official life, or who had to meet him as an antagonist, won for
him, in railway circles, universal respect, and his appointment as
arbitrator in the diiferences between the Caledonian and the Korth
British Kailways indicates the high estimation in which he was
held by railway authorities outside the circle of his immediate
bus'iness connections.

For a year before his death Mr. Eborall had been in failing-
health, and he had, in consequence, been absent from duty for some
months. Towards the end of November 1873, he had, however,
returned ; but his strength was unequal to the demands upon it.
On the 15th of December he was seized with an attack of apoplexy,
and died on the following morning, at the offices of the Company,
at the age of fifty-three years.

In Mr. Eborall, not only the South Eastern, but the entire rail-
way world, sustained a great loss. Probably few men intrusted
with the management of a gi-eat public undertaking succeeded
more thoroughly than he did in enlisting the sympathies of the
numerous bodj' of officials and employes under his control, for
the due performance of whose duties he was directly responsible,
and who at the same time so entirely commanded the confidence
and respect of the board, to whom the account of that responsibility
had to be rendered. An anxious, constant, and earnest watchfulness
over the matters in his charge marked his whole career, and the
evidence which all his acts furnished of this thorough devotedness
to duty not only stimulated those around him to a strict per-
formance of their respective duties, but naturally created through
the entire staif a feeling of common and deep interest in the general
welfare and success of the undertaking. His manner was invariably
pleasant and courteous ; nor did he hesitate in all matters of
importance to ascertain personally the views, and seek the assist-
ance and co-operation, of the officers of the company, listening with
attention and respect to whatever counsel might be offered, and
evincing a consideration and deference for the frank opinions of
those who tendered their suggestions or advice.

Although not perhaps a man of great originality of thought or
idea, Mr. Eborall nevertheless displayed a quick apprehension of
the leading features of a case, and an unusual clearness of percep-
tion in seizing on any point of value, or in the discovery of a weak
part in a subject submitted to him. His perseverance and tact were
remarkable in tracing out the facts and bearings, and in tho-
roughly mastering all the difficulties, of a comjolicated business,
weighing the various opposing arguments with a diligence and

MEMOIRS. 289

iiciiteness which necessarily tended to render his decision just and
conclusive beyond dispute.

In the selection of servants Mr. Eborall possessed a peculiar
power of discernment, as regards the capabilities of men, and their
fitness for particular positions. In the exercise of his authority,
iilthough disposed to leniency, he was a strict disciplinarian, and
reqiiired from_ all an exact performance of the task assigned to
them. He never overlooked any instance of neglect, or other fault,
which may have endangered the safety of passengers.

In the earlier days of his appointment to the South-Eastern
Company, Mr. Eborall devoted himself with great energy and
success to the abolition of the active and mischievous competition
which had prevailed for years between his own and neighbouring
companies ; and, as regards the then growing railway communi-
cation with the Continent, he applied himself to the introduction
of useful measures* and improvements, both as to the passenger and
merchandise traffic, and succeeded in removing many serious incon-
veniences and hindrances in the service, thus tending materially
to the benefit of the companies, as well as to the comfort and
advantage of the travelling public. A conviction of the necessity'
for a West End communication with the existing system of the
South-Eastern Railway Company urged him to take a prominent
l^art in the promotion and furtherance of the Charing Cross and
Cannon Street extension lines, and the success which attended his
untiring efforts to insure the safe and regular working of the diffi-
cult service on these lines, when opened for traffic, bears high
testimony to Mr. Eborall's practical abilities as a railway manager.

Mr. Eborall was elected an Associate of the Institution of Civil
Engineers on the 5th of December, 18(55, and frequently joined in
the discussion on Papers connected with the working of railways.
He was also a Lieutenant-Colonel in the Engineer and Railway
Volunteer Staff Corps, and took an active part in solving the pi'o-
blems submitted to that body by the War Office.

Mn. THOMAS GRISSELL was born in London on the 4th of October,
1801, and was educated at St. Paul's School. He had been intended
for the medical profession, but was in 1815 articled to his uncle,
the late Mr. Henry Peto, the builder, and became his partner in
1825. On that gentleman's death, in 1830, Mr. Grissell was joined
by the present Sir S. Morton Peto, Bart., in conjunction with
whom, for many years, he carried on one of the largest building
[1874-75. N.S.] u

290 MEMOIRS.

and contractors' businesses in the kingxlom. "When Sir S. Morton
Peto "became Member of Parliament for Norwich, the business
connection ceased.

Mr. Grissell was elected an Associate of the Institution on the
7th of March, 1843, and served on the Council in that capacity in
the year 1845. Having constructed, under Mr. Wyatt, the Society's
former lecture-room, &c., in the autumn of 1846, he was a consider-
able donor to the funds of the Institution in respect to his charges-
for the work.

He executed the improvements in the Severn navigation, under
Sir William Cubitt, Past-President Inst. C.E. Also a great portion
of the Great AVestern railway, including the viaduct at Hanwell,
under Mr. Brunei, Vice-President. Inst. C.E, Much of the South-
Eastern railway, under Mr. Joseph Cubitt, Vice-President Inst.
C.E. ; and was largely concerned for the late Mr. Eobert Stephen-
son, M.P., Past-President Inst. C.E. He was the builder of the
following public buildings in London : — The Eeform, Conservative,
and Oxford and Cambridge Club Houses ; the English Opera and
French Theatres, Hungerford Market, the Nelson Column, and
last, but not least, the new Houses of Parliament, under Sir
Charles Barry. He was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries,
a Member of the Eoyal Society of Literature, and a Fellow of the
Horticultural Society.

In 1860 he retired from business, and purchased Norbur}^ Park,
near Dorking. He was in the Commission of the Peace for the
county of Surrey-, and served the office of High Sheriff in 1854 and
1855. He died on the 26th of May, 1874.

Mr. JAMES AECHIBALD HAMILTON HOLMES, eldest son of
Lieut.-Colonel J. G. Hamilton Holmes, late 12th Eoyal Lancers,
was born on the loth of January, 1836, at the Eoyal Military
College, Sandhurst, where his father was a student in the senior
department. His education, begun at home, was completed at a
proprietary school at Blackheath. Mr. Holmes passed for the
Eoyal Military Academy, Woolwich, but ill-health prevented him
continuing at the Academy, and he matriculated at Trinity
College, Dublin, and articled himself to Mr. Hemans, Vice-Presi-
dent Inst. C.E., by whom he was employed on railways in the
north of Ireland. He next was appointed an Assistant Engineer
on the Eecife and Sao Francisco railway, from Pernambuco to the
interior of Brazil, where he served three years, returning to Eng-

MEMOIRS. 291

land in 1862. In the same year he went to India, as Assistant
Engineer, for the Madras Irrigation and Canal Company, where he
remained xintil the temporary suspension of the works in 186G.
On the resumption of the works, Mr. Holmes was again sent to
India by the Madras Irrigation and Canal Comj)any, and continued
in the service of this company about three years, being mostly
emj^loyed in surveying and levelling, part of the time in Mysore,
in independent charge. On the reduction of their working esta-
blishment, he for a short time was employed on the Carnatic
railway, from which he was appointed to the Department of Public
Works of Ceylon, and died of fever at Batteealoa, Ceylon, on the
17th of January, 1872. Mr. Holmes was elected an Associate of
the Institution of Civil Engineers on the 7th of February, 1871.

Mr. JAMES INNES HOPKINS, the fourth son of Mr. John
Castell Hopkins, of Kingston-on-Thames, was born in Edinburgh
in October 1837. After completing his education he entered the
business of Messrs. Snowdon and Hopkins, afterwards Hopkins
and Co., of Middlesborough. Although, in the twenty years of his
active business life, he was more concerned in the commercial part
of engineering than the purely mechanical processes, he still was
conversant with most of the details of iron-making and its various
branches. In April 1865, Messrs. Hopkins and Co. and Messrs.
Gilkes, Wilson, and Co. united under the joint name of Hopkins,
Gilkes, and Co., Limited. Mr. James Hopkins was an active and
energetic member of the new directorate, subsequently repre-
senting the company in London, where he was well known and
deservedly esteemed as the resident director. His genial disposi-
tion, unfailing honliommie, and ability in matters of business, gave
him a place of much esteem in the trade. In the latter part of
1873 his health began to fail, and early in 1874 he went to Pan
for change and rest ; but, on his homeward journey, he died at
Paris on the 22nd of May, 1874. Mr. Hoj)kins was elected an
Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers on the 1st of
February, 1870; he was also a Member of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, of the Cleveland Institution of Engineers,
of the Iron and Steel Institute, and of other kindred associations.
He was Captain in the 1st North Biding of Yorkshire Volunteer
Artillery, and had served in the Town Council of Middlesborough.

292 MEMOIKS.

Mr. SAMPSON LLOYD was born in Birmingliam on the 7th of
June, 1808. He was the seventh son of Samuel Lloyd, banker, of
that town ; and was brought up at schools connected with the
Society of Friends at Kendal, his mother's native place, and
afterwards at Tottenham. At a comparatively early age he
was apprenticed to his brother at Stockton-on-Tees. Subsequently
he was employed in his father's bank in Birmingham, until, on the
death of one of his brothers, he took an interest in a colliery pro-
perty at Wednesbury, which had belonged to the family for several
generations. This led to the establishment of the firm of Lloyds,
Fosters, and Co., in 1835, in which he held a fourth share. The
object of the company, in the first instance, was to develop the
colliery above referred to, by building blast-furnaces and in-
troducing improved winding and pumping machinery. In con-
nection with the furnaces was a small foundry and engineering
establishment, of which Mr. Sampson Lloyd undertook the manage-
ment. As the railway system began to increase, his attention
was turned to the manufacture of railway material. In this he
was assisted by the late Mr. John Joseph Bramah, to whom he
always considered that he was indebted for his first start in this
branch of the trade. Under his energetic management the business
rapidly developed, and the Old Park Ironworks became one of the
first establishments in the kingdom for the manufacture of wheels
and axles, and other railway material. In 1856 large rolling mills
were erected for the manufacture of tires and axles, and this for
many years was a most successful branch of the company's business ;
to which was added, about the year 1867, works for the manu-
facture of Bessemer steel in all its branches. In January 1867 the
business of Messrs. Lloyds, Fosters, and Co. was transferred to the
Patent Shaft and Axletree Company, Limited, of which company
Mr. Sampson Lloyd became vice-chairman, and he continued in the
management till within a year of his death, which took place on
the 26th of September, 1874, at Areley House, near Stourport,
where he had recently gone to reside.

Mr. Lloyd was always foremost to adopt any invention which
was sufficiently developed to be applicable to his business. The
firm was among the first in the South Stafibrdshire district to
introduce the hot blast in their furnaces, to utilise the waste gases
for various purposes, as well as to introduce the improvements of
the late Mr. Joseph Beattie, M. Inst. C.E., and Mr. Mansell, in the
construction of railway wheels. Numerous important contracts
for bridge-work were carried out under Mr. Lloyd's superintend-
ence for the Indian, Spanish, and Australian railways. One of

MEMOIRS. 293

the largest works witli which he was immediately connected was
the new Blackfriars Bridge, for which the firm supplied tlie iron-
work. That jiart of the contract was executed without difficulty
but being guarantors for the other contractors, and unusual diffi-
culties being met with in forming the foundations, much anxiety
and annoyance were experienced by Mr. Lloyd, to whose persever-
ance and energy it was mainly owing that the contractors were
enabled to complete the work.

Mr. Lloyd was elected an Associate of the Institution on the
7th of April, 1857. He took a leading part in the establishment
of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, and was an active
member of the council of that society for ten years, and was one
of the vice-presidents from 18G4 to 1872. He was chairman of
the Darlaston Steel and Iron Company, and much interested in
the development of the company's property during the latter
years of his life ; also chairman of the South Staffordshire Water-
works Company and of the Swansea Wagon Company. Both of
these companies were in a state of great depression when he took
the office, and to his energy and perseverance their present pros-
perous position is chiefly due. During the greater part of his life
Mr. Lloyd avoided public affairs, except in immediate connection
with the town of Wednesbury ; but after leaving that place, and
taking up his residence at Wassell Grove, Hagley, he became a
magistrate fur the counties of Staffordshire and Worcestershire.

Mr. Lloyd was a man of great energy and perseverance, of a
kindly disposition, ever ready to sympathise with the sorrows and
difficulties of others, whether poor or rich. In public affairs, in
business, and in private life, the same good traits were manifested
in little things as well as in more important ones, always com-
bined with characteristic warm-heartedness and cheerfulness. He
was much esteemed and beloved by his family and workpeople,
and all those connected with him in his various undertakings.

Sir harry STEPHEN MEYSEY-THOMPSOX, Bart.,i late
Chairman of the North-Eastern Railway Company, was the eldest
son of Mr. Richard John Thompson, of Kirby Hall, near York, and
was born at Newby Park, Yorkshire, on the 11th of August, 1809.

' A biographical sketch of Sir H. S. Meysey-Thompson, by Earl Cathcart,
appears in " The Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England," Second
Series, vol. x., pp. .')19-541. From a pamphlet descriptive of his career " as a man
of business" (printed for private circulation only in 1874, and of which a copy lia^
been presented to the Library of the Institution), several passages have been
extracted and incorporated in this notice.

294 MEMOIRS.

As a child his health was delicate, and he was in consequence
educated at home, or under private tuition, until he went to
Cambridge in 1828. Although he was by no means what is called
a " reading man " at the University, he established among his
contemporaries the reputation of a man from whom good work
was to be expected in after life. The anticipations thus formed
were amply fulfilled, and if his name is not so widely known
as that of others of his generation, few have excelled him in a
career of usefulness. On leaving Cambridge, he employed himself
in completing his education, and for that purpose spent some
considerable time on the Continent, until he finally settled down,
some years before his marriage, in 1843, to farming occupations
upon the family'' estate in Yorkshire, at that time in his father's
possession, but to which he succeeded in 1853. The improve-
ments which he effected there can only be appreciated by those
who have had an opportunity of comparing the Kir by Hall property
as it is now with its condition thirty years ago. Lands and park,
and even the house itself, are altered beyond recognition, save by
those who have known them the most intimately, and who have
themselves witnessed the beneficial changes produced by the hands
and skill of one who was indeed a master.

In 1838 began Mr. Thompson's connection with the Eoyal
Agricultural Society. The society may almost be said to owe its
existence to the combined efibrts of Mr. Thompson and the late
Mr. Pusey, and its Journal has been enriched by many of their
contributions. Mr. Thompson's last paper, which appeared in
1872, " On the Management of Grass Land, with especial Eeference
to the Production of Meat,"^ is particularly valuable, and has been
published separately. To Mr. Thompson is largely due the dis-
covery of the power inherent in the soil of absorbing and assimi-
lating ammonia. The guiding idea flashed upon him when observing
the escape of ammonia from manure heaps. In conjunction with
the late Mr. Joseph Spence, of York, Mr. Thompson experimented
as follows : A glass tube was filled with ground turf to represent
a 4-feet section of earth. A solution of ammonia was applied
at the top, and the percolation noted. The result was fairly
startling; it was not filtration, but a new chemical action. In
the volume of the Journal of the Eoyal Agricultural Society for
1850,'-^ Ml". Thompson gives a modest account of this discovery;

* Vide " The Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,' Second
Series, vol. viii., p. 152.

2 Vide vol. xi., p. C8, •' On the Absorbent Power of Soils." By H. S.
Thompson.

MEMOIRS. 295

but its importance can scarcely be overestimated. In tlic words
of a great living authority, " It is remarkable that this slight
•.'xperiment contains the germ of what I consider to be one of the
most important, if not the most important, of all the scientific
investigations connected with the practice of agriculture."

But the most interesting part of Sir Harry's life, as far as the
general public is concerned, is that which was spent in the service
of the jS'orth-Eastern Eailway Company. He must ever be iden-
tified with the prosperity of that line, the third of the great
English railways in point of size, and the first in point of success.
In 1849 he was elected Chairman of the York and North Midland
Eailway Company, which was at that time unable to pay any
dividend. For five years Mr. Thompson devoted a large portion
of his time to this company's affairs, and while the results of his
labours were most satisfactorj^ to his constituents and honourable
to himself, there can be no doubt that he was being educated
for filling the much more onerous and responsible post of
Chairman to the North-Eastern Railway Company, to which
he was elected shortly after its formation in 1854. In all the
weighty and delicate negotiations which resulted in that im-
portant union between the principal railways in the north-eastern
district of England, Mr. Thompson, as the chairman of one
of the associated companies, necessarily took a leading part. For
twenty years he was chairman of the resulting North-Eastei-n
Company, and during the whole of that period, until failing-
health compelled him to relax his labours, he watched over and
superintended all its affairs with the most unflagging devotion,
and with consummate skill, discretion, and ability. Few com-
panies have been more fortunate in their chairman than was the
North-Eastern in Mr. Thompson ; and that the shareholders were
conscious of this is evident from the fact that never, on any
(jccasion during his chairmanship, did they fail to adopt any
proposition which he put before them.

Under Mr. Thompson's presidency the Xorth-Eastern Company
gTew and prospered. Further unions were effected with other
companies in the district, involving many prolonged and difficult
negotiations, in all of which he took the principal share ; so that
when he resigned the chair, the company possessed intact a terri-
tory stretching from the south of the Humber to the Tweed. As
compared with its origin in 1854, it had much more than doubled
in capital, mileage, and resources, and was then yielding to its
proprietors a dividend larger than was paid by any other leading
railway company in the kingdom, and greater, probably, than in

296 MEMOIRS.

his most sanguine moments he had ventured to anticipate. Tlie
company has not been backward in recognising these great services.
A magnificent testimonial, was voted to him on his retirement, and,
though he did not live to enjoy its presentation from the hands
of so many of his oldest friends, he was yet enabled to see and
admire in private the splendid fruits of their gratitude.

" But Mr. Thompson did not confine himself in railway matters
to the North-Eastern Company alone. As the railway system
extended, and the relations between companies became more and
more complicated and conflicting, and the attention of Parliament
and the public becoming at the same time more closely directed
to railways and their regulation, he saw the necessity for some
bond of union being formed amongst them, with the view of
promoting internal harmony, and of taking measures for the
protection of their common interests, more especially against
hasty or hostile legislation. Accordingly, he suggested, and
in 1867 ultimately organised the Eailway Companies' Asso-
ciation, consisting of representatives from all the railway compa-
nies in the kingdom who chose to join it. All the leading, and
many of the smaller companies, did join the association, and Mr.
Thompson was unanimously elected their Chairman, which office
he held until compelled by the state of his health to resign it, in
1873. That he should have been considered worthy to preside
over an association composed of the ablest and most thoroughly
disciplined administrators in the railway world, sufficiently shows
the opinion which was entertained of his character and business
abilities ; and on accepting his resignation, which the association
did with deep regret and sympathy, a resolution was unanimousij^
passed, recording 'their high estimate of the eminent services
which Mr. Thompson had so long and so effectively rendered in
sxij)port of the important railway interests of the kingdom.' "

Sir Harry sat in Parliament for Whitb}^ from 1859 to 1865.
He stood for one of the divisions of the West Biding in 1868, but
was defeated by a small majority; and in 1871 he declined, on
the score of health, the ofier of an uncontested seat for \\ hitby.
He took an active share during the whole of his life in county
business, and served as High Sheriif in 1856. The baronetcy
was conferred upon him in 1874, only a few months before his
death, which occurred in May ; and none are likely to dispute that
it was an honour well deserved and worthily bestowed. iSir Harry
was elected an Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers on
the 10th of April, 1866.

MEMOIRS. 297

ill!. JOHN ROE was born at Ashbourne, in Derbyshire, on the
2-lrth of July, 1795. Ho was educated at Skipton, Uffington, and
AVantage Academy. ]n 1813 he a.ssisted liis father in the con-
struction of the AVilts and Berks Canal ; also, about the years 1820-
1826, in the construction of the Eegent's Canal. As a contractor
he carried out numerous works, both public and private; among
them a railway from Moreton-in-the-Marsh to Stratford-upon-Avon
in 1825, also a road near Long Compton in 1827.

In the year 1830 he was appointed surveyor to the ITolboru
and Finsbury Commissioners of Sewers, an office he held until
the commission was sitperseded. He eventually became Surveyor-
in-Chief to the Metropolitan Commissioneis of Sewers, and finally
retired from that office on a pension. During his term of office
he carried out a series of important and valuable improvements
in relation to drainage. After making a number of observations,
and ascertaining by measurement the proportion of liquid to
solid sewage, also the quantity of sewage matter carried off by
the sewage stream in suspension, he established the present
practice of cleansing sewers by flushing, and abolished the ob-
noxious system of opening the sewers and lifting the sewage by
windlass and bucket. Then followed the construction of egg-
shaped sewers in lieu of flat-bottomed sewers and semicircular-
bottomed sewers, also of side entrances, improved gully drains,
and house drains. Mr. Eoe introduced the system of pipe drains,
and expended much time for many years in ascertaining the
effect of rainfall upon the sewage streams within the sewers.
Night and day, for a long period, the sewage and rainfall of
a given area were measured, the rainfall gauged, and the loss
by absorption in different soils and by evaporation ascertained.
The plan of emptying by the night-cart gave way to that of
removal by pumping, after disinfection and dilution, direct into
the sewers ; and eventually the cesspools, to a large extent, were
abolished, and the present prevailing system of water-closet esta-
blished. A series of experiments were also carried out on the
quantity and velocity of water floM'ing through pipes of different
diameters and varying falls. The results of some of Mr. Eoe's
investigations were embodied in the tables published by the
General Board of Health, in 1852 and subsequent years, in their
Minutes of Information for Local Boards of Health.^

Mr. Eoe also designed a scheme for the Northern drainage of
London, and his Eejjort thereon was presented to the Metropolitan

' Vide also Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. xii., p. 9G.

298 MEMOIES.

Coiumissioners of Sewers on the 2ord of October, 1834.^ In 1850
Mr. Koe was appointed to carry out the drainage of Windsor. His
advice was also obtained for the drainage of Eton, Eton College,
Derby, Beaconsfield, Eeading, Harrow-on-the-Hill, and other places.
In the drainage of Harrow- the outfall pipe was 18 inches in
diameter only.

Mr. Eoe was elected an Associate of the Institution on the
1st of February, 1842, and on the 19th of the same month contri-
buted a Paper " On the Causes of Accumulation of Deposit in
Sewers,"^ in which the usual mode of removing that deposit was
alluded to, and a description was given of a flushing apparatus
for cleansing sewers. He died on the 15th of March, 1874, aged
seventy-nine years.

General Sir JOHN MAEK PEEDEEIC SMITH,^ K.H., E.E.,
F.E.S., the son of the late Major-General Sir J. F. Sigismund
Smith, K.C.H., E.A., and grand-nephew of Field Marshal Baron
Von Kalkreicht, Commander-in-Chief of the Prussian Army, Avas
born at the Manor House, Paddington (then the only house there),
on the 11th of January, 1790. He entered the Army as second
lieutenant of the Eoyal Engineers, on the 11th of December, 1805 ;
and, after passing through the various grades, finally became
General on the 3rd of August, 1863, and was the senior Colonel
Commandant of the corps of Eoyal Engineers. He thus held com-
missions from four sovereigns. He served in Sicily from 1807-12.
In 1809 he was at the siege of Ischia and the capture of that island,
and of Procida, in the Bay of Naples. He was also at the capture
of Zante and Cephalonia. In 1810, in the action before the in-
vestment of the fortress of Santa. Maura, he was deputy assistant-
quartermaster-general, and at the siege and capture of the fortress he
served as an officer of Eoyal Engineers. He was Inspector-General
of Eailways till November 1841 ; and in that capacity he examined
and reported on the London and Birmingham, and the other prin-
cipal railways before they were opened to the public ; besides being
on several occasions a Eoyal Commissioner on railways, harbours,
&c. In 1845 he was Chairman of the Commission to Inquire into
the Gauge of Eailways, and, in 1846, one of the Commissioners
appointed to investigate the various projects for establishing

' A copy of this Report is preserved in the Library of the Institution. [Tract,
8vo., vol. 108.]
2 Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. ii. (1S42), p. 132.
' The substance of this notice is taken from the " United Service Gazette." — Ed.

MEMOIPuS.

299

railway teruiiui witliin or in the immediate vicinity of the
metropolis. In 1841 he made a report, in conjunction with the
late Professor Barlow, to the Lords of the Treasury, respecting
railway communication between London, Edinburgh, and Glasgow.
He was the commanding Engineer of the London district in
1830-1, during which period he made frequent reports for the
information of his late Majesty William IV. ; he commanded the
Eoyal Engineers at Portsmouth in 1851, and afterwards at
Chatham and Aldershot. He was M.P. for Chatham, in the Con-
servative interest, from 1852-3, and again from 1857-65 ; was
the author of a translation of Marshal Marmont's work on the
" Turkish Empire," with military and political notes ; and was
appointed, in March 1834, Gentleman Usher of the Privy Chamber,
which office he held to the time of his death. He was widely
kno^vn and greatly respected, having been in the Army just sixty-
nine years, and connected with the Court for more than forty years.
Sir Frederic Smith was elected an Associate of the Institution
of Civil Engineers on the 23rd of February, 1841. He died on
the 20th of November, 1874, at his residence in Pembridge Villas,
Netting Hill, and was buried at the Kensal Green Cemetery,

Mr. WILLIAM WOODCOCK was born in the year 1814, at
Hinckley, Leicestershire, and was educated near his native town,
where his father was a manufacturing hosier. Upon leaving
school he assisted in the business until his father's death, after
which he remained in partnership with his brother until the ^-eai"
1848, when he came to London and turned his attention to
brewing. During the time he was so occupied, owing to the
" Smoke Nuisance " Act, his thoughts were directed to the question
of the consumption of smoke, and to the best method of setting
steam boilers. Subsequently he invented a method for effecting
the former object in steam-boiler furnaces, and he devoted his
whole energies for some years to matters connected therewith.
Whilst so engaged he was introduced to Mr. (afterwards Sir
Goldsworthy) Guniey, and, in conjunction with him, brought
out the Gurney stove. Mr. Woodcock then became the Managing
Director of the London Warming and Ventilating Company, a
company which has proved in every way a success, and has sup-
plied warming apparatus to the principal cathedrals in England,
includi*ng St. Paul's. In the year 1870 Mr. Woodcock made arrange-
ments to purchase the business of the company fi-om the share-
holders, which at the time of his death, at Brixton on the 1 5th

300 MEMOIRS.

of August, 1874, he was still carrying on with the assistance of
his eldest son.

Mr. Woodcock took out several patents connected with the sub-
jects of warming and ventilation, including improvements in the
original Gurney stove. He was elected an Associate of the Insti-
tution of Civil Engineers on the 9th of January, 1855. A Paper
of his, entitled " On the Means of Avoiding Visible Smoke from
Boiler Furnaces," ^ was read before the Institution on the 14th
of November, 1854. He also took a prominent part in a discus-
sion on a subsequent Paper on Steam Boilers,

Mr. Woodcock was possessed of great energy and sound common
sense. His integrity of character and unassuming manners, to-
gether with his thorough knowledge, both practical and theoretical,
of the subjects to which he devoted a great part of his life, won
for him the esteem and regard of all those with whom he had
business relations. Of his private life, it is sufficient to say that
it was a bright example for his children to follow, and that his
memory will always be held in most affectionate regard by many
friends.

3lR. CHAELES FAVELL FOETH WOEDSWOETH, Q.C., was
born at Harwich in 1803, and was the son of Mr. Eobinson Words-
worth, a relative of the Poet-Laureate. He was educated at the
Grammar School in his native place, was called to the bar in January
1833, and became Queen's Counsel in June 1857. He died on the
18th of February, 1874, after a short illness, from bronchitis. He
was the author of the following works : " The Law of Joint-Stock
Companies," which ran through several editions ; " The Eailways
Construction Facilities Act, 1864;" " The Law of Eailway, Water,
Gas, and other Companies, requiring express authority of Parlia-
ment ;" " The Law of Compensations, by Arbitration and by Jury,
under the Lands Clauses Acts ;" " A Summary of the Law of
Patents for Inventions ;" " Practice at Elections of Members of
Parliament." And he contributed frequently to legal and other
periodicals. In 1857 he unsuccessfully stood for Paisley in the
advanced Liberal interest. He was elected an Associate of the
Institute on the 21st of January, 1851, and was in 1852 appointed
Honorary Counsel, which position he held until his decease.

' Vide Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. xiv., p. 1.

( 301 )

Sect. III.

ABSTEACTS OF rAPERS IN FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS

AND PERIODICALS.

0)1 the Bistribiition of Loads over the Siq^er structure of Bridges.

By M. Lavoinne.

(Annales des Fonts et Chaussees, Feb. 1874, pp. 166-203.)

The STiperstrnctiire of bridges usually consists of longitu-
dinal beams, united b}' cross bearers, on which rests the actual
roadway. The strain on a beam is generally calculated by sup-
posing it to support the load which rests on the nearest half of
each of the spaces between it and the adjacent beams. If, however,
the cross bearers are continuous across the bridge, they will to
some extent distribute this load over the whole of the beams,
instead of leaving it concentrated on one. The object of this
paper is to investigate the effect of this distribution, and to de-
termine how far it should be allowed for, in designing the beams
or main girders of bridges.

The general theory of what maj^ be called " mat-work systems "
(that is, composed of two sets of ribs crossing each other at right
angles) has been given by the same author in the " Annales des
Fonts et Chausse'es" for 1867, the subject being a kindred one,
viz., the strains ujion the vertical planking and horizontal ribs of a
lock gate. The problem as there stated is as follows : — Given a
number of parallel ribs, supported at their extremities and crossed
at right angles by other ribs which are loaded in a given manner,
to find the bending moment of any rib of either system at any
point of its length. The investigation of this problem leads to
numerous and complicated equations. To simplify matters, it is
assumed in the present memoir (1) that the cross bearers are close
together, and infinitely narrow, so as to cover the whole surface
of the bridge ; (2) that the beams are either three or four in
number ; (3 j that both the beams and the cross bearers are of
constant section throughout ; (4) that the load is one of two classes,
viz., either distributed over the whole length, and covering a
zone of constant width, or else isolated in the middle of the span,
and occupying a certain width on each side of the centre line.

First, in the case of three beams of equal strength, the final
results show that no material advantage is gained by the cross
bearers being continxious across the bridge, except when the load is
equally distributed on each side of the longitudinal axis. If

302 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

however, tlie load be evenly distributed over the whole surface, the
strains on the three beams tend to become equal, as they would be
if the beams were independent, and each carrying the same load.
It follows that the effect of cross bearers in distributing loads is
very great where these are permanent and uniform, but small
where they are local and accidental.

In designing a bridge with three beams, it is usual to make the
central one twice the strength of the others. On examining this
case, it appears that, with a symmetrical load, no advantage is
gained by the continuity of the cross bearers ; and on further com-
parison, it is seen that, for a bridge of three beams, a central one
of double strength, with discontinuous cross bearers, is the most
economical design, in point of materials, which can be employed.

The case of four beams is next examined. The equations are
more complicated, but their development leads to the same re-
sults as those just given, viz., (1) The continuity of cross bearers
is useful only with a symmetrical load covering the whole bridge,
and with an unequal load it is a positive disadvantage ; (2) The
most economical design is one in which the cross bearers are dis-
continuous, and the middle beams are double the strength of those
outside. The problem of a larger number of beams than four is not
discussed in detail; but an attemj^t is made to examine it by
adopting the h3'pothesis that the cross bearers are rigid, or, in
other words, infinitely strong, so that under all circiimstances of
strain their form is that of a straight line. The investigation
appears to point to the same result, viz., that the continuity of cross
bearers is not to be recommended.

This conclusion is the reverse of that arrived at in the former
memoir with reference to lock gates, as it is there shown that the
effect of continuous vertical planking is to convey a great part of the
pressure to the sill, and to distribute the remainder nearly equally
over the ribs of the gate. The difference between the two results
is due to the fact, that in a bridge there is no solid support cor-
responding to the sill, and that the loads are more symmetrical,

W. E. B.

GTai)hic Method of calculating the Stresses on Boof-trusses.

By Otto Spjesz.

(Civilingenieur, xx., 4, 1874, cols. 206-216.)

Only those constructions are dealt with in this essay the
members of which are subjected to simple tension and compression.
Further, all the arrangements of bracing have at least one pair
of members connected together, and reaching from one abutment
to the other. Those constructions, the general outline of which is
trapezoidal, or which are not bounded by members forming a
triangle, but are composed of a series of triangles arranged
in succession, will be discussed in a second essay under the

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 303

head of bridges. Deviating from the customary method, in which
the supporting forces at the abutments are first ascertained,
and the stresses on the members of the truss derived from these
proceeding from the extremities inwards, each separate load is
followed, and the supporting forces are obtained as a final result.
The forces in the several members are exhibited in the diagrams,
as sums, in which the part due to each separate load can be
recognised with facility. Accordingly, this graphic method serves
not only for the solution of special numerical examples, but also
for discovering the fundamental law of the distribution of stress
for each construction.

The Author investigates first the simplest roof-truss, consisting of
two rafters, inclined upwards so as to be in compression, or down-
wards so as to be in tension. By combining the results he gets the
diagram for a roof-truss, consisting of a pair of rafters, a bent tie,
and a kingpost. He then replaces the kingpost by a triangle of
bracing. Lastly, he shows how the diagrams for the more com-
plicated forms of roof-trusses may be built up out of the simple
diagrams previously obtained. The method could not be rendered
intelligible without illustrations. W. C. U.

Graphical Determination of tlie Weights, corresponding to a given
Span and given Unit Strain, which a doiible T Iron can supj-
po)i, when resting on two Bearings, and of ivhich the moment
of Inertia and DepAh are known. By M. de Blonay.

(Memoires de la Societe'des Inge'nieurs Civils, May 1874, pp. 278-279.)

The relation between the moment of strain and the moment of
resistance of a beam or girder, resting on two supports, with a
span and load uniformly distributed corresponding to a given unit
strain, is expressed by the general equation

F C _ E 1

2 ~ y7'

In this equation C is equal to the half span, P half the total load

P 1

uniformly distributed, and -^r^ the moment of resistance. If

* 1
2 C and 2 P, or the span and the load, be considered as vari-
able quantities, and be represented by x and y respectively, then,

8 P 1
putting A for the constant quantity — - — , the preceding equa-

* 1

tion may be written x y = A, the equation of a hyperbola -n-ith

respect to its asymptotes.

Without altering the value of the ordinate, let the abscissa x

be replaced by another x having the value of -, and it may

304 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

then be written ij = Ax^, the equation of a right line passing
through the origin of the figure. When x = 0, .r, = co. When
the value of x increases, the corresponding- value of a;, decreases ;
and when x = cc, x^ = 0. Since the value of x^ diminishes as
the span increases, it is evident that the lengths of the spans,
should be regarded as starting in a positive direction from right
to left. M. de Blonay observes that it is customary, and also
more convenient, to start the abscissa from left to right, and
therefore changes the sign of the angular coeflScient in the last
equation, thus putting — A = B, which gives y = B.-c,. This
equation, which is that of a right line symmetrical with the
former, represents the relation between the load and the span,
with the difference that the positive values of the sj)ans increase
from left to right.

As there is no practical use in considering spans whose
lengths are below a certain minimum, M. de Blonaj'^ takes the
oi'igin from the left at a distance a, the minimum span which

is considered equal to - . The new abscissa X has for its value

Xi -f- «5 and the equation becomes ?/ = B (X — a).

Whatever value may be given to B, the right line cuts the axis
of x at the point where the abscissa is equal to a. It may, there-
fore, be completelj' determined by calculating the ordinate of a
second point ; for instance, of that which corresponds to X = 0.
Afterwards the load can be graphically ascertained which corre-
sponds to a span somewhat greater than - . The diagram pre-

pared by M. de Blonay gives the loads not only for iron of the double
T form, but for any description of beam of which the depth and
the moment of inertia are known.

C. T.

On the Joining of Inclined Lines hj Parabolic Arcs.

(Annales des Conducteurs des P. et Ch., March to June 1874, 27 pp., 3 pi.)

Three methods of drawing a parabolic curve to join two in-
clined lines are compared. In the first method one point in each
of these lines, being tangential points, and their point of inter-
section, are the data ; a line is drawn between the tangential
points, and the centre of that line being joined to the point of
intersection already referred to gives a diameter of the parabola.
The means of drawing the curve is described, but the method being
complicated, it is not one to which the Author further refers. In
the second and third methods a vertical line (see Figs. 1 and 2)
is drawn from the point of intersection S, and a horizontal line
from the tangential point A of one line of inclination of such a
length that the vertical line bisects it, and a vertical line is let

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS.

305

fall on or raised to the other line of inclination, the point of inter-
section (h) being a second tangential point through which the
curve is drawn. ^

Fig. 1.

Join Ah, and the centre of tliat portion of the vertical line
from S above A b gives a third point c. If through c a straight line
be drawn parallel to A h, it will cut the original inclined lines in
two points ; join Ac, be, drop verticals on these two lines from the
two points, and their middle points will give two further points in
the parabola. Other points may be obtained by a repetition of
the same process.

Fig. 2.

The Author proceeds to explain that, the origin of co-ordinates

being assumed at the vertex of the parabola, y = — is the equation

of the curve, where P represents the parameter. This equation is
proved to take the form

[1874-75. N.S.]

^ 21)

(!•)

306 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

where j) represents the inclination per cent, on the incline, and D
the distance from the point A along the horizontal line to the
axis. The calculated value of D is then shown to be

D = ^ (-'.)

where L is the distance from the point A to the vertical line
through S, and j/ is the rate of inclination of the other line. The
equation then takes the form

2^ + / /ON

^^'^ 4ir • • • (^0

The following formulae give the values of L, L':—

dp' + n-w

dp+H'-n
L = ^,+^^— («•)

where H and H' are the depths of the assumed tangent points in
the inclines below a horizontal datum line, whose length is d, in
the first case H and in the second H' being assumed as known.

The Author goes on to explain that, although the knowledge of
the axis is necessary, it is not so a priori, and he gives the method
of tracing the parabola from the assumed tangent point most
distant vertically from the point of junction of the inclines, with
the necessary forniula3.

The following cases may occur in practice : —

An ascent followed by a descent, or a descent by an ascent ; an
ascent followed by a horizontal, or a descent followed b}^ a hori-
zontal ; an ascent followed by an ascent, or a descent by a descent ;
and an ascent or a descent of equal inclination.

From the examples of each of these, the following (Fig. 3) is
selected, the calculation being made in feet : —

Data,_p= -05,2/= -04, H = 32-8' (lO-""), H' = 26-24' (S-"),

(Z = 1 64' (50™)

^ r?jy-f-IT - H' _ 164 X •04 + 32-8-26-24 _ 6v56-f 6-56

p-\-2}' ~ ^5+^04 ~ ^09

13 -l"^
= ~ = 145-77' (44-44™)

2L,, ^ 2^45^77x:05 ^ U^ ^ ^^^,^^^.

p-{-p -05-}- '04 -09 ^ ^

The folloAving formulae give pohits in the parabola, above the
horizontal a h' through the several points iu the datum line.

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS.

307

Througli 2—

ij ^llj) -I ( "^^^^T^^ ' Avhcre Z = 98 • 4' (30 • "), is the distance along

the datum line from A to 2.

= 98-4I-05 - 98-4f-4i7^^! = 98-4(-05 - -015) = :i-442'

(l-OS").

1 r^-c

tTkf

Through the vertical —

= il(3p_y) = 3G-4425(-lo- -04) =4-008675' (1-22'-).
4

■0025

' 05 + • 04

= 4-05' (1-235").

Through the axis —

w = \,( ^^-2\ = 145-77'
-^ \P+PJ

Through 3, where Z = 164' (50-") by the same formula as employed
for point 2, sii^ra —

y = 4-05' (1-235").

Through 4, where I = 262-4' (80-") by the same formula—

?/ = -25' (-076").

Through the second tangent point —

y = L(j)-p') = -145-77' X -01 = 1-4577' (-444").

By subtracting each of these quantities from II, the depth of the

X 2

308 AESTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

point A below the datum line, the points of the parabola are as-
certained below the datum line.

The Author also gives a separate set of formulae specially appli-
cable to an ascent or a descent followed by a horizontal, and to an
ascent followed by an ascent, and a descent by a descent.

E. F. B.

On small Oscillations of a Material System in Stable Equilibrium.

By F. Lucas.

(Comptes-rendus de rAcade'mie des Sciences, Ixxviii., June 8, 1874, pp. 1635-1638.)

The case suj)posed is that of a body disturbed by a passing im-
Itulse, and left to oscillate freely about a position of stable equi-
librium. It is pointed out that the whole energy stored up in the
body at any given time (t) after the impulse is divided into

1. A translative energy (travail morphique) which has produced,

and which is measured by, the distance of each particle of the
body at the given moment from its position of equilibrium.

2. An impulsive energy which has produced, and which is

measured by, the velocity each particle possesses at the
given time.

Taking x, y, z to be the co-ordinates of any particle m referred
to its position of equilibrium, and X, Y, Z the forces acting upon
it parallel to the axes of the co-ordinates at the given moment, it i&
shown that —

Translative energy = — ^ 2 (X a; -|- Y y -(- Z z).

Impulsive energy = half the vis viva

= ^ 2 «i

Taking one from the other —

(Impulsive energy) — (Translative energy) — ^%m — t^>

It 1/

where v is the distance of any particle at the given time from its
position of equilibrium.

Taking the mean values of the different terms in the above
eqiiation for a considerable interval of time comprised between the
limits Iq and t^ —

(Mean of Translative energy) — (]\Iean of Impulsive energy)

^^Y (dy\^ fdzX-

1 ^

2, VI

2 ih - to)

r/ dv\ f dv\-\

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. .'309

But as r ^ is always small, the right-hand side of this equation

tends to vanish as the interval (t^ — fg) increases ; hence the mean
value of the impulsive energy = the mean value of translative
energy ; i.e., the whole energy stored up in the body is made up
on the average, half of impulsive and half of translative energy.

W. K. B.

On the Drainage of Clay Mouniains. By Gustav Gerstel.

(Allgemeine Bauzeitung, Xos. 1 to 4, 1874, 32 cols., 4 pi.)

The Author, who had charge of the most difficult district of the
Schi'issburg-Kronstadt line of the East Hungarian railway, finding
that little had been written on the means of controlling the unseen
and insidious power of water in veins, was compelled to investi-
gate for himself the peculiarities of the forces and circumstances
w^hich caused landslips.

The district mentioned belongs to the Tertiary formation. In
digging down from the surface the following series were met with :
1) the thin upper soil ; (2) dry blackish 3'ellow loam, about 6^ feet
2 metres) thick, which passes into (3) a clean yellow calcareous
clay (Lehm), varying in thickness from 6 to 46 feet (2 to 14 metres),
and (4) a basis of stiff blue clay (Tegel), of small dip and unde-
termined depth. Sometimes between these there is a grey marly
clay (Mergel), which falls to pieces on exposure to the air, and is
so much cracked and split up as to be more or less permeable to
water ; this material occasionally replaces the yellow clay, and
frequently contains much sand.

The steep, sharp spurs standing out from the principal chain
towards the valleys, along which the railway winds, are of this
grey marl, the ground in the secondary valleys between them being
yellow clay. The latter is sometimes found in a plastic state, with
here and there veins or cavities filled with water ; in dry weather
cracks open in the ground, through which water ultimately finds
its way down to the surface of the blue clay, and by reducing the
cohesion of the yellow clay itself and its friction on the underlying
bed, gives rise to slips. To obviate this, it was necessary to search
for water, and to drain it off as quickly as possible. Numerous
borings were made, and trial shafts 50 to 100 yards apart Avero
sunk for the purpose of ascertaining the depth of the impervious
stratum of blue clay, Avhich alone could serve for drainage, care
being taken to note the manner in which water was met with and
the quantity at each hole.

The drains were tunnels and trenches filled with stone. The
drainage tunnels were 35 inches (0 • 9 metre) broad at the top, and
4o inches (1 • 1 metre) at the bottom, and from o feet 7 inches (1*1
metre) to 4 feet 11 inches (1-5 metre) in height. The trenches
had a bottom breadth of 39 inches (1 metre), with nearly vertical

310 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

sides ; tliey were well timbered during construction, and in short
lengths at one time. The fall given to the drains was never less
than 1^ to 2 per cent. The bottom was about 12 inches (30 centi-
metres) below the surface of the blue clay, to allow for sediment.
Where the trenches Avere merely required to carry off the under-
ground water, loose stone to the depth of 39 inches (1 metre) was
laid at the bottom, then inverted sods, and the trench was filled
up with earth. When they had to act also as surface drains, stone,
or small round wood in the absence of stone, was filled in nearly
up to the top.

Bank Slips.

It was impossible to avoid in some instances the use of yellow
clay for banks ; in such cases danger was reduced to a minimum
by building up the banks in layers, and by giving them very flat
slopes ; and if bad weather set in, trenches were cut through the
bank and filled in with stone, in order to allow the moisture to run
off quickly. When the ground on which a bank was about to be
made did not appear sufficiently dry and firm, it was first well
drained by a system of longitudinal and transverse trenches and
tunnels sunk into the blue clay ; care being taken that all un-
dulations of the surface of the blue clay were duly regarded, and
that no depression was left out of consideration where water could
accumulate.

If the side of a hill be itself slip2:)ing, it will be necessary to
drain from 20 to 40 yards of the slope above the site of the pro-
posed bank, to form a barrier to the slipping ground above ; the
bank must not be commenced till the ground has become thoroughly
firm and dry. If, however, it be imjiossible to wait till this has
taken place, a trench should be rapidly cut parallel to the bank,
5 to 10 yards from its foot on the valley side, with its bottom in
the impervious stratum, and afterwards be filled up with stone in
the manner described. The slope on that side of the bank will
thus be drained, the friction of the laass on the impervious stratum
increased, and the bank will receive a suj)port which will prevent
its slipping.

The following case shows the necessity of investigating the
cause of slips before adopting any means to obviate them. At
23' 7 kilometi'es from Schassburg, a bank varying from 3 feet 3
inches to G feet 6 inches (1 to 2 metres) in height was intended
to carry the line along the side of a hill washed at the foot by
a stream, which when swollen reached the bank. The ground,
with lialf of the bank, began to slip, and in spite of a trench of
the usual description cut parallel to the line up the side of the
hill, continued to slip. Borings proved that, between the trench
and the bank, the blue clay formed a watershed, and therefore
the trench did not affect the drainage of the ground below.
It was found necessary to clear away a great part of the bank
with the slipinng ground, and to dig a firm foundation for the
former in the blue clay, along the deepest line of which stone

FOREIGN TR.VNSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. oil

was filled ill to cany ofl' any moisture. After this tlie bank
stood firm.

The following case of a length inelnding a cutting and a bank
deserves i)articular notice. Between the cutting, which was about
IH feet (3 "5 metres) deep, and the stream, the ground was on the
move, and in certain parts swampj*. Borings showed that below
the toi3 clay, at a depth of 2 yards, the earth was replaced by a
sandy marl, which was often so saturated with water as to be in a
running state; at a depth of 26 feet (8 metres) there was less sand,
and the ground was drier : it was determined to take this stratum
for the drainage level, as the blue clay could not be reached.
Parallel to the cutting on both sides, some distance off, trenches
were sunk, the bottoms of which were arched over with dry
masonry, and the rest filled up with stone and wood. To obtain
the greatest fall, and to get rid of the w'ater in the most expeditious
manner, these were drained by four trenches at right angles
to the line. The ground soon became firm, and all slipping
ceased.

The bank which succeeded this cutting carried the line over
a depression in the hillside, down which, from a distance of
220 yards (200 metres) above the bank, the ground was moving.
Borings proved that the yello\v clay, at a depth of 20 to 26 feet
(6 to 8 metres), -was succeeded by saturated marl similar to that
in the cutting, which attained here a depth of 46 to 49 feet
(14 to 15 metres). A trial shaft, sunk in the middle of the area
to control the results of the borings, could not be proceeded with
beyond a depth of 6 metres, the pumps not being sufficiently
powerful to keep under the stream of water which poured in. It
was conclutled that the cheapest way of getting rid of the
water would be to erect pumps on the spot, which should be set
to permanently drain the ground. While the matter was still
under consideration, the overflow of one of the trial holes sug-
gested the idea of getting rid of the water by the force of gravity,
after the manner of the artesian well. Accordingly, suitable
holes were sunk at various places, from which open ditches, 2 feet
(60 centimetres) deep, led off the water to a common drain, which
passed under the bank into the stream. The success of these
measures was complete. As a precaution, however, against the
possible effects of continued rain, the bank was widened to the
extent of 6 feet 6 inches (2 metres) on the hillside ; so that, should
a slip take place, the permanent way alone would have to be
brought into line.

Slips in Cuttings.

The same principle obtains, that the ground should be thoroughly
drained before the work is commenced. Slopes should be made
as flat as possible in treacherous ground; but even a slope of
3 to 1 does not render drainage unnecessary. Judging from the
new curve of equilibrium which a slope takes after a slip, namely,
with the upper part depressed and the lower part bulged out, it

312 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

would seem advisable to assimilate the slopes of cuttings to this
form. Thus, for a slope of 2^ yards vertical height, the first ^ }ard
from the bottom may have a batter of 2 to 1, the next vertical yard
one of 5 to 1, and the rest a batter of li to 1.

Care must be taken in treacherous clays to finish off the slopes
as the excavation proceeds from the top to the bottom. The
opening up of gullies should be avoided ; but if this method of
working is adopted, the wall of the gully nearest the side of the
cutting should be of the proper slope itself, and only the earth in
the middle taken out in the usual manner.

Catch-water drains close to the top of the slope are objectionable,
as the water in time eats its way to the slope. As soon as possible
trees should be planted along the top for a width of at least
20 yards, to prevent cracking and yawning of the ground from
drought.

When a cutting has to be commenced before the ground is
thoroughly drained, retaining walls of dry masonry, with a batter
of 1 to 1 and a breadth at the top of 3 to 5 feet, carried up from
3 to 13 feet (1 to 4 metres) above the place on which sliding may
be expected, will stop movement. But when this has already
commenced, it is impossible to give any general rules for arresting
it. Should there be no actual stream of water, but onl}' an oozing,
this action may be stopped by cutting trenches diagonally from
the top to the bottom, from depths of from 5 to 8 feet, and filling
them afterwards with stone.

If drainage beyond the immediate vicinity of the cutting be
necessary'-, a proper system of trenches and tunnels can only be
laid out after due consideration of the upper surface and of the
impervious stratum of blue clay, the depth of which must be
ascertained by numerous borings.

In the construction of the East Hungarian railway, the cuttings
w'ere easily and successfully carried out, but at the east end, the
tunnel, which begins at 39*9 kilometres from Schiissburg, pre-
sented from first to last great difficulties. This being the first
important work of the kind, there was no experience to serve as a
guide. It was considered at the time impracticable to sink the
trenches down to the depth to which they should have been carried,
namely 29 feet 6 inches (9 metres) ; the consequence was the
drainage of the ground was imperfectly eifected, and the earth in
the cutting kept constantly slipping. A great deal of the difficulty
was got over by diverting the centre line at the end of the cutting,
and by prolonging the tunnel for a length of 36 feet (11 metres)
through the worst part of the ground. By these means the work
was sufficiently advanced to enable the railway to be oj)ened.
After this the cutting continued to give trouble, but the Author
then left the service of the East Hungarian Railway Company,
and cannot mention what steps were taken to obviate the
slipping.

The Author concludes by remarking that, where it Avas possible,
expensive drainage works were avoided, and the material for the

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 31

banks was taken from side cuttings. These side cuttings were
made with flat slopes, and themselves afforded a protection to tho
railway against slips, as they formed basins in w Inch the earth
moving from the hill could accumulate to a largo extent before
reaching the bank. H. D.

Oil Andernach Trass.

(Stoompost, Aug. 2nd and 9th, 1874.)

The tuffstone from which Andernach trass is ground is a volcanic
product of the eastern Fifel range, on the left bank of the Ehine.
The principal quarries are in or near the valley of the Brohl, and
in the valley of the Nette, close to Andernach. The tuffstone con-
sists of the ash ejected by the volcanoes in prehistoric times, com-
pressed by thick layers of superincumbent pumicestone subse-
quently deposited, and it only crops out at or near the surface at
the points above mentioned. In the Nettethal the superincumbent
layer of pumicestone is more than 39 feet (12 metres) thick. In
the Kriifterthal it is only 3;^ to 6^ feet (1 to 2 metres) thick. The
tuffstone, however, Avhich is most easily obtained is that of the
Brohl thai and its neighbouring valleys, where the laj^er is from
65^ to 98 feet thick (20 to 30 metres).

German trass is frequently and largely adulterated with wild-
pumice, or other stone. In the Brohlthal the temptation to adul-
terate is great, for not only is the wild and bad tuffstone close at
hand, but it must be removed before the good layers can be reached,
Pumicestone is found also in large quantities in different j)arts of
the Xeuwied basin, and close to the tuffstone quarries.

Good trass may be known by the following characteristics : — -
When thrown in a heap, the slopes should run down readily. On
being formed into a ball in the hand, unadulterated trass falls
immediately into small pieces, and the pieces themselves separate ;
whilst with old, wild, or damp trass the ball falls at once to powder.
Good dry trass should be strongly hydroscopic, a quality which
is ascertained by exposing it for half a day on damp stones.
The weight also of a given quantity of dry trass is greater than
that of damp trass, owing to the volume of the latter increasing
at a greater rate than the weight. Thrown into a glass of water
and stirred, good trass sinks qnickl}-, the water soon becomes cleai-,
and only a few particles of pumicestone remain floating. The
transition from the fine to the coarse particles in such a precipitate
its much more regular in the case of good trass than in that of bad
or wild trass. AVith wild trass especially, the coarser particles are
covered with a yellowish, slimv coatino; resembliiii«: mud. AVlien
adulterated with sand, a considerable quantity of it forms tho
bottom layer of the precipitate.

The needle-test is that usually adopted, and is prescribed in

314 ABSTKACTS OF PAPERS IN

Holland for Government works. The diameter of the needle is
• 047 inch (1 • 2 millimetre) ; and a mortar, consisting of two parts
by measure of rich slaked shell or stone lime, and one part of
trass, mixed with water to the consistence of putty, must, after three
or four daj's, support such a needle when loaded with 10-| oz.
(3 hectogrammes).

In applying the needle-test, it is essential to bear in mind that

1st. Mortar mixed with sea water will give a much less
favoiirahle result than that mixed with fresh water.

2nd. It is important always to mix the mortar to the same
stiffness, otherwise there will be very discordant results.

3rd. Difference in the fineness of the trass, within reasonable
limits, does not appear to affect its strength.

4th. The lime used for the tests should be slaked either by
gentle sprinkling with water, or by absorption of water
from the air. Shell lime is to be preferred to stone
lime, being more regular and finer in its grain. It has
not unfrequently happened with the latter description
of lime, that the needle has rested on a coarser particle
than usual, and thus given greatly exaggerated results.

5 th. In loading the needle, care should be taken to increase
the weight gradually and steadily.

A simple chemical examination will also aid in ascertaining
the value of the trass, and in detecting adulteration. Ground trass
has a composition of alumina, silica, lime, and oxide of iron, of
which 50 to 60 per cent, is silica, and onl}^ about 5 to 10 per cent,
lime. The silica, which is present in a soluble or gelatinous form,
when mixed with lime and water forms a silicate of great hardness,
capable of strong adhesive power, and of resisting the action of air
and water. This characteristic of the gelatinous silica gives to the
trass its setting properties, and the more of this silica there is in
the trass the greater is its value.

Since lime is already present in the tuflfstone, it is clear that
in damp trass the conversion of the soluble silica will have partly
taken place. Damp trass is therefore objectionable, and, as the
trass itself is strongly hydroscopic, old trass is also capable, by the
absorption of water from the air, of becoming set in its own con-
stituents. This is one of the reasons why much of the tuffstone
which comes from the Kettethal is of inferior quality. The
quarries in that valley are much burdened with water, which
renders the tuflfstone damp.

Trass from tuflfstone procured from old buildings is equall}^
bad, even if the stones have not been set in mortar. If they
have been so biiilt, they will naturally have lost much more of
their soluble silica by combination with the lime in the mortar,
both during the building, and afterwards by the action of rain,
&c. The chemical examination has for its object to ascertain

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 315

the presence and quantity of the gelatinons silica. The following;
is the simplest method : —

(a.) From 1"12 to 1 -09 dram (2 to .'5 grammes) of the trass to ho
examined must be boiled in 7 to lOi oz. (2 or o hecto-
grammes) of concentrated hydrochloric acid. 'I'he yellow
solution must then be diluted with water, upon which a
turbidity of a greyish white colour will form, and only a
few grains of sand remain undissolved. Being allowed to
stand, the precipitate will settle until the solution becomes
quite clear. After pouring oft' the liquid the precipitate
must be boiled for a quarter of an hour in caustic potash,
when it will be almost entirely dissolved.

This test is based on the following principle :— Silica
occurs in trass in combination with alumina as a silicate
of ahimina, which with the rest of the constituents of the
trass is soluble in concentrated hydrochloric acid. On the
addition of water the silica separates from the alumina, as.
a flocculent gelatinous deposit of a greyish white colour.
The alumina is onlj^ soluble in hydrochloric acid when,
as in the trass, it is in combination with silica as silicate
of alumina, or if, when free, it has not been heated to a
red heat. This last, however, owing to its volcanic origin
has taken place in the tuftstone ; it is insoluble in hydro-
chloric acid, but is soluble in caustic potash, as well as the
silica, which becomes free on the dilution of the hydro-
chloric acid. If then
1st. The precipitate after the addition of water to the hydro-
chloric acid solution be not a greyish white, but brownish
or blackish, it shows an adulteration with loam or clay,
burnt clay, tiles, or slates.
2nd. If after treatment with caustic potash the precipitate is
not entirely dissolved, it proves an adulteration with
sand or wild trass.

(6.) To determine the quantity of gelatinous silica in good
trass, comparative tests must be made with trass of a re-
cognised quality, the basis being the solubility of the
gelatinous silica in nitric acid. The more of this silica
there is in trass the less will be the quantity of the pre-
cipitate. With measuring tubes the amount may be as-
certained by a comparison of the jirecipitates of good trass,
which will serve as a basis for a similar quantity of the
trass to be examined.

In this test one characteristic of the precipitate, Avhich
will serve to detect adulteration, is that it must sink slowly.
Stone dust, sand, or broken slate when mixed with the
trass, from their greater specific gravity, sink first and lie
at the bottom. The precii)itate of wild trass also, con-
taining little or no soluble silica, sinks before that of good
trass ; and thus by comparing the colour and thickness of

316 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

the different layers of the precipitate with those of good
trass as a basis, an indication of the extent of the adultera-
tion may he obtained. A precipitate light-coloured on its
surface proves adulteration with wood or peat ash, &c.

The strong effervescence of the trass, on treating it with
hydrochloric or nitric acid, is however no proof of its
adulteration with wild trass or with lime, since the tuff-
stone itself contains a good deal of free lime. The effer-
vescence must, it is true, be much less than when Port-
land cement is treated in the same way, since the latter
contains about 54 per cent, of lime, and the Andernach
trass only an average of 7 per cent. Trass ground from
tuflfstone procured from old buildings will show little
effervescence, since the lime, as already stated, is for the
most part combined with insoluble silica.

Adulteration with wild trass may also be detected by the micro-
scope, which will clearly show small pieces of quartz enclosed in
the wild stone, whilst in the genuine trass, the shining black
colour of the obsidian, which is present in large quantities, may be
recognised. -p. -pq-

Road-malcing in the Basses-Fyrenees. By M. Conte-Grandchamps.

(Annales des Fonts et Chaussees, May 1874, pp. 529-56. Figs. 1-16.)

Since 1836 parish roads (chemins vicinaux) have acquired great
importance in France. The annual sum voted in 1870 for the
maintenance of roads exceeded £5,500,000 sterling (138,000,000
francs), £1,840,000 of which were devoted to mail roads (chemins
de grande communication), £1,080,000 to county roads (chemins
d'interet commun), £2,240,000 to ordinary parish roads receiving
subvention, and £300,000 to ordinary parish roads receiving none.
From 1837 to 1871 the total expenditure was £120,000,000 ster-
ling (3,000,000,000 francs; ; from 1871 to 1883, there will have been
added£60,000,000 sterling (1,500,000,000 francs), when the round
total will amount to £180,000,000 (4,500,000,000 francs). .The
Councils-General everywhere consider the development of roads
of the utmost impoitance, and by the law of 1871 they have re-
ceived the right of superintending county and parish roads. In
many cases the existing state of things has been maintained ;
but in some the duties have been conferred upon surveying agents
(agents voyers), and in others upon engineers. The question
having arisen which did the work most economically, this Paper
gives the results for the department of the Basses-Pyrenees, where
the roads were during nine consecutive years, 1855 to 1864, in
charge of surveying agents, and during a similar period, 1864 to
1873, in the hands of engineers.

From the official returns it is shown that the surveyors added a
total of 64 miles (102,508 metres) to the mail roads, the cost of

FOKEIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 317

maintenance for each metro Lcing 2hd. (0'2G-lr franc), and the cost
of construction per metre 10s. o^l. (13'20 francs). The ofirtcial
accounts for county and parish roads are somewhat faulty between
1855andl8Gl. 'Jlie roads were in a very bad condition in 18G1,
and hirge sums had to be expended during 18G1, 1862, 1803. The
two accounts being mixed up, it is not possible to determine the
exact sum belonging to each; but it appears that from 1837 to
1864 a total length of 741 miles (1,192 kilometres) was con-
structed, the respective number of kilometres for county and parish
roads being 190 miles (o()6 kilometres) and 551 miles (886 kilo-
metres). The expenditure during that period reached £384,240
(9,606,191 francs), from which, after subtracting 2,000,000 francs
for maintenance, there remains a sum of £304,240(7,606,000 francs}
for 1,192 kilometres constructed, the cost being 5s. 0|f?. (6'38 francs)
per metre. The road-making consisted almost entirely of labour ii^
discharge of taxes (journees de prestation), which is in most
cases unskilled. The salaries of the officials, from 1855 to 1863,
amounted to £18,104(454,300 francs), or 6-93 j^er cent, of the entire
capital.

When the engineers undertook the work, in 1864, the price
of labour rose 10 per cent., from 1"60 franc to 1-77 franc per day.
The last nine years included the disastrous period of the war ; nor
were the road-makers dismissed during the fine season, as had been
done previously. To make a fair comparison therefore, one-tenth
nuist be added to the sums quoted in the first period. During
these years there were constructed 70 miles (113,199 metres) of
mail roads, and maintained a mean length of 488 miles (785,426
metres), the cost of maintenance per metre being 2^d. (0*23 franc),
and of construction per metre 6s. 7^d. (8*24 francs). The service
of county roads was disorganised when the engineers undertook it
in 1864. Some of the roads were under the surveillance of the
Maire ; others were maintained by subventions out of the county
treasury ; but there was no regular budget and no control. This
had to be regulated, and the tax-labour defined. The engineers
constructed during the second period 168 miles (269,892 metres),
and maintained a mean length of 274 miles (441,384 metres), the
cost of maintenance per metre being l^d. (0*141 franc), and of
construction per metre 4s. l\d. (5*12 francs). The service of cross
roads scared}' existed in 1864. The tax-labour (prestation) was
often of an uncertain character, and it was not till the law of 1868
that sufficient time and funds could be devoted to these works.
Under these circumstances the accounts up to 1869 are somewhat
confused ; but the following results are correct. The mean length
maintained from 1864 to 1869 was 675 miles (1,086 kilometres),
and from 1869 to 1872, 918 miles (1,479 kilometres), the cost of
maintenance per metre being about Ijc?. (0-12 franc), and of con-
struction Is. lie?. (2-39 francs;. This work, it must be rememl)ered,
includes the tax-labour which is unpaid. The salaries to officials
during that period amounted to £20,226 (505,650 francs), or about
62 per cent.

318 AESTEACTS OF PAPERS IN

In the first period therefore mail roads cost for maintenance
€•264 franc per metre; in the second period 0"23 franc, a differ-
ence of 0'034 franc per annum, or 0-306 franc for nine years, in
favour of the Latter period. The new roads cost 13*20 francs per
metre np to 1864, and 8-24 francs from 1864 to 1867, the difference
heing 4-96 francs, or about 4s. per metre. If the rise in the price
of labour already referred to be added, the respective differences
will be 0'54 franc and 6-28 francs. While the surveyors spent
£6,012 (150,301 francs) per year to construct 7 miles (11,389
metres) of mail road, and £6,950 (173,758 francs) to maintain
409 miles (659 kilometres), the engineers, on the other hand, spent
annually £4,988 (124,705 francs) to construct 8 miles (12,577
metres), and £7,248 (181,197 francs) to maintain 487|- miles
(785 kilometres). During that period the engineers have with an
extra expenditure of £298 (7,438 francs) maintained 78 miles
(126 kilometres) more of mail road than the surveyors, and in
the same years have constructed 656 miles (1,055 kilometres) of
county and parish roads, or almost as much as the former authorities
in the previous twenty-eight years.

It will be seen that the work of the engineers in the Basses-
Pyrenees has been of great importance. Their resources con-
sisted of tax-labour, and sums annually voted either by the
communes or by the Councils-General. It was difficult to super-
intend the labourers, who generally had no experience of earth-
works or masonry ; the only thing they could do was excavating
and stone-breaking, and to them, therefore, was assigned the
maintenance of the existing county roads and the preparation of
the new ones, while paid and skilled labour was reserved for the
mail roads, the building of bridges, and general supervision. The
entire work is mapped out throughout the department, and definite
lengths of road are added to the aiet-work at fixed periods. Each
season has its special work ; printed instructions are sent round
from time to time, and every one, from the chief engineer to
the labourer, knows his alloted duty.

The wooden bridges of the old administration have been re-
placed by others of brick or of metal, erected with the utmost
regard to economy ; cut stone has almost disappeared, and in many
cases the flags of Lourdes have been employed instead of timber.
The old breadth, varying from 16 feet 4 inches to 19 feet 8 inches
(5 to 6 metres), has been maintained ; but where an entirel}^
new bridge had to be erected a single road of 9 feet 10 inches
to 13 feet 1 inch (3 to 4 metres) between the pai'apets has been
considered sufiicient. The metallic bridges arc calculated to
support a test load of 7 cwt. 3 qrs. (400 kilogrammes) per square
metre, and to bear a vehicle with a load of 5 tons 18 cwt. (6,000
kilogrammes) per axle. The strain on the ties does not exceed
1 3 lbs. (6 kilogrammes) per square millimetre. An accompanying-
table shows the nature and cost of many of the Avorks executed
since 1864.

J. D. L.

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 319

Striking the Centres of Arches — Slach-hlocJcs and Sand-hoxes,

(Annales des Conducteurs des Ponts et Ch., Jan. and Feb. 187-1-, 10 pp. 3 pi.)

It is impossible with the aid of ordinary slack-blocks to lower
the centres gradually and uniformly at every ])oint. The vibra-
tions caused by the blows on the wedges are liable to be commu-
nicated to the arch, and the tenacity of the newly-made mortar
joints is thereby endangered. Another defect is, that the total
extent of the lowering of the ribs is limited to the thickness of the
thinner edge of the wedge. The intensity of the vibrations in
slackening the wedges will be very much diminished if the angle
of inclination to tlie horizon be such that its tangent is nearly
equal to the coefficient of friction of the material of the wedges.
For the generality of hard wood the corresponding angle is about
33". When the angle of slope is steeper than the angle of rest, the
tipper block is kept in position by a cord attached to a staple in
each block. This cord is tightened by a wedge, the removal of
which allows the upper block gradually to descend.

The vibrations are more effectually got rid of by adopting a
set of three wedges. The two lower of the ordinary shape meet
at their thin end, and the third, Y shaped, rests uj)on them. The
former, at first kept together by cleats, are gradually separated on
the removal of the cleats hj inserting a pinch bar between them.
In a system similar to the above, except that the Y"Shaped wedge
is undermost, the angle of slope is greater than the angle of
rest. The upper blocks are kept together, either by a cord passing
through a hole in each, or by a screw. When the screw is used
there must be a slot in the lower wedge to allow it to descend.
Witli the above methods great care is required to ensure an even
settlement, since one set of blocks must not be slackened ap-
preciably faster than the rest. To remedy this defect bags of
sand were used. At first round props, with their feet dressed off
to a point, were placed in front of the bags of sand, and on
these being cut away the whole weight descended on the bags,
which were emptied gradually through holes. This arrangement
was defective, because, in reality, the instantaneous slackening —
the most important feature — was effected at the instant the props
were cut away. Another arrangement consisted of sand-bags and
'verrins,' a Jdnd of vertical union screw-bolt placed in front.
Since, however, the screw-bolt and sand-bag served the same
purpose, the former method was discontinued.

Among the other contrivances for utilising the mobile property
of sand, thei^e is a pair of cast-iron cylinders of Avhich the lower
one has a bottom and no top ; the upper one, of which the external
diameter is equal to the internal diameter of the lower, ]ias a
bottom and a top with a small central hole in it. The lower one
is nearly filled with sand, the xipper one is inserted, and tlic two
constitute one support. In the lower cylinder, of about 10 inches

20 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

diameter, small holes are pierced near tlie bottom, which are
closed luitil the centres are to he lowered, when the sand gradu-
ally runs out and the upper cylinder descends.

The difficulty in this case is the loss of mobility of the sand
caused by compression. This may be in part overcome by leaving
a small opening between the lower and the upper cylinder, which
is also initially filled with sand. The upper cylinder being pierced
with holes as well as the lower, the sand escapes both upwards
and downwards, and its mobility is thus increased. A third ex-
ternal cylinder is sometimes placed outside the lower one, which
is pierced all over with holes, whilst the third external one is only
pierced sufficiently to let out the sand at a slow rate. Between
the second and third cylinders the sand cannot lose its mobility by
compression, whilst the loss of mobility in the inner one is compen-
sated for by the increased number of apertures. Where this third
cylinder is not employed the discharge of the sand is facilitated
by the use — 1st, of external tubes about 2 inches diameter next to
the cylinder and ^ inch at the end ; 2ndly, of internal tubes about
2 inches in diameter, and pierced all over with small holes of | inch.
This acts in the same way as the third cylinder above described.
It is evident that instead of cast-iron cylinders strong wooden boxes
may be used. The depth of the sand ought to be from 9 to 12
inches. Instead of sand a trial has been made with small lead-
shot, but the flattening caused by the weight prevented the grains
from running out freely.

W. D.

V^prigld Arched Bridges. By J. B. Eads, M. Inst. C.E.

(Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Oct. 1874, pp. 192-215.)

The Author advanced the proposition that, for railway purposes,
an upright arched bridge could be constructed more cheaply than
was possible with the suspension system. In the St. Louis bridge,
the upper and lower members, which constitute a single rib of the
span, consist of steel tubes 18 inches in external diameter, in
straight lengths of 12 feet, the curvature, which is circular, but
which diflers by a few inches only from a parabola, being intro-
duced at the joints. The two lines of tubes are placed at a dis-
tance of 12 feet apart from centre to centre, and are connected by
a single s^'stem of triangular bracing. The mean temperature being
taken at 60° Fahr., the effect of temperature, ranging from 20^ to
140° Fahr., decreases or increases the length of the rib by about
G inches. The extension causes the crown to rise, which relieves
the lower tube of compression at the abutments ; hence the
upper tube at this part has to bear all the load, and its sectional
area has to be increased accordingly. At the crown, owing to the
upward bending, the lower tube has to do all the duty, and its
sectional area has to be corresj)ondingly increased. Contraction

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 321

causes the opposite effect ; tlu;s each tiihc has to he made of suffi-
cient sectional area. Loth at the crown and at the springing, to
hear the whole load on the rib, AVithout doubt, the most econo-
mical plan of supporting an equally-distributed load over a given
span is by the catenary or suspended arch, and if the metal was
equally able to sustain compressive and tensile stresses, the upright
arch of the same curvature would be equally economical, no
bracing being required in either to preserve the normal curvature.
Hence, when unequally loaded, the only difference in the two
systems consists in the amount of material required in the bracing.
In the case of the upright arch, if one half of the span be loaded,
a horizontal movement is given to the crown towards the un-
loaded side. To prevent this is one of the most important pro-
blems. The solution adopted by the Author consists of the intro-
duction of an inverted arch under each half of the main arch,
terminating at the abutments and crowns, and properly braced
to the main arch.

"With this arrangement, the main or upright arch is in compres-
sion throughout its length: under the loaded half-span the in-
verted arch is in tension ; under the unloaded it is in compression.
A horizontal tie or chord, of the length of the whole span, is also
employed to resist the thrust of the main arch. In the case of
a bridge of two or more spans, the method employed is to allow
two adjacent extremities of the main arches to abut against one
another, resting on a saddle movable on the top of the pier.
Thus, when the arches are both equally loaded, the thrust of one
balances that of the other. The only difficulty is in the expansion
and contraction of the chords from variations of temperature. This
may be met in the following way : to one end of a vertical lever
movable about a horizontal axis in the saddle, the end of the
chord of one arch is attached ; to the other end that of the chord
of the other arch. Thus. Avhen the chords contract or expand,
the lever simply turns about the axis. When, however, one span
is loaded, the excess of thrust in its arch moving the saddle on
the pier towards the unloaded span, causes a tensile stress in the
chord of the loaded span, and, by means of the lever, an equal
and opposite compressive stress in that of the unloaded span. The
Author believes that the most economical system of bridge-building
can be attained by these methods, and that a bridge of two spans
of 400 feet for a double line of rails, wdth a versed sine of l to
carry a live load of 2 • 5 tons per lineal foot, can be constructed
with the main arch of steel at a weight of 1*28 ton per lineal
foot, or, with the main arch of wrought iron, 1-93 ton per lineal
foot.

A. T. A.

[1874-75. N.S.]

322 ABSTRACTS OP PAPERS IN

Bridge over the Elbe at Aussig, Austrian Nortli-Western Hailivay.

By W. Hellwag.

(Zeitschrit't des Oest. Ing. u. Ar. Vereins, vi., 1874, pp. 114-117.)

Tliis structure, which is 1,014 feet (309-23 metres) in length,
consists of a main bridge 750 feet (228-65 metres) in length, and
of a continuation on each side — on the right bank of one span, and
on the left of three spans. The main bridge over the river has three
openings of 233 feet 6 inches (71-225 metres), 233 feet 4 inches
(71-2 metres), and 233 feet 6 inches {lV22b metres) span respec-
tively. The superstructure consists of continuous iron lattice
girders 731 feet 3 inches (223 metres) long, the bearings of which
are 242 feet 9 inches (74 metres) apart. The railway is carried on
cross girders resting on the top of the main girders ; while between
the latter, at a lower level, is situated a tramway. On the outside
of the upside girder there is a footpath 4 feet (1-25 metre) broad,
supported by iron brackets. The main girders are 24 feet (7-36
metres) deep, and placed 18 feet apart (5-5 metres) from centre to
centre. The total weight of the ironwork of the central bridge
is 996^ English tons (20,250 zoll centner), or 27-35 cwt. per foot
(91-2 zoll centner per lineal metre) run, of which 85-4 zoll centner
belong to the main structure, and 5-8 zoll centner to the parapets, &c.

For testing the bridge the maximum load of 31-5 cwt. per foot
(5,250 kilogrammes per lineal metre) was applied. The corre-
sponding deflection of the bridge under this load was calculated
to be for the outer spans 1 3^2 inch (33-9 millimetres), for the central
span 1 J inch (44* 5 millimetres), or allowing an excess of 10 j)er cent.
1^ incli(37-5 millimetres), and l-|-f inch(49 millimetres) respectively.

In accordance with the orders of the Ministry of Commerce, the
railway at the upper level was to be tested with a load of 24 cwt. per
foot (4,000 kilogrammes per lineal metre), and the tramway with
7-5 cwt. per foot (1,250 kilogrammes per metre), together 31*5 cwt.
per foot (5,250 kilogrammes per metre). The corresponding load for
one opening was produced by (a) five locomotives of 60 tons each,
equal to a distributed load of 4,245 kilogrammes per metre, and by
(h) fifteen wagons heavily laden with stone, each weighing 5 tons,
equal to a distributed load of 1,014 kilogrammes per metre, making
a total testing load of 5,259 kilogrammes per metre.

The trial was divided into five phases, between each of which the
bridge was relieved of all load. The first four phases consisted in
loading — (1) the middle span, (2) middle and one side span,
^3) two side spans, (4) middle and other side span, each span
under test being weighted with the dead load of five locomotives
and fifteen wagons as above. For the fifth phase three locomotives
were run at high speed over the bridge, the lower roadway of the
jniddle span being fully loaded.

Finally the lower roadway and footjijath were tested for the
maximum load of 6-8 cwt, per square yard (400 kilogrammes per

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 323

square metre) by applying a dead weight made up of rails and stone.
The bridge stood the test so well that permission to open it for
traffic was given at once. The following are the deflections in
millimetres at different points under the different phases : —

AAA A

Girder down Stream side.
O-O-lO-O(lf) 0-0 39-0 (1 J'"; 1-2 Q") - 8-5 (1.1") Om)

0-0
Permanent f
deflection.!

Girder up
- 7-5(r)

Stream side with Patliway.

2-0(^") 3G-5(17e") O-Q
1-0
2-0

- 8-5 0-0

0-0
0-0

- 9-5 1")

- 7-5(r)

0-0
0-0

, 29-5 (liV)

28-5 (I3V')

0-0

29 -5(1 3V') 1-0
30-0(lf>)l-0

1-0
1-0

39-0(ljrj

4o-o(ir)

0-0
1-5

-19-0(n
- 18 -0(11)

1-2

0-0

39-5(110 1-0
iO-O(l^.J) 1-0

1-5
1-5

30-0(1 in

31-0(13^,")

1-0

2-0

29-0(1^)
33-0(1.^)

1-2
0-0

- 7-0 (^") 0-0

- 6-0 (V) 0-0

The sign - denotes a rising at that point.

During the five phases the maximum deflection of the middle
span was 1^1 inch (36 millimetres), of the side spans |-f inch (23
millimetres). At the end of the trial there was no permanent set,
and the compression of the bearings on the piers also dis-
appeared.

H. D.

Removal of Earth hj Mcichinenj from the Zizka Tunnel, Prague.

By Fr. Eziha.

(Zeitschrift des Oest. Ing. u. Ar. Vereins, i., 1874, pp. 1-7, pi. 4.)

The situation of Prague, in the deep valley of the Moldau,
renders the approach to the town by railway from the elevated
plateau of Bohemia exceedingly difficult. The direction chosen
for the Turnau-Kralup-L'rague railway involved, after leaving
Prague, a heavy cutting, and a tunnel through tlie Zizka Hill.

The deposition of earth from the cutting, estimated at 146,500

Y 2

321 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

cubic yards (112,000 cubic metres), was a matter of great discus-
sion. The ground was too steep to admit of its being deposited
on the town side of the tunnel, and in the suburb it was im-
possible. To carry it through the tunnel after a road had been
laid, would have delayed the works, besides which the bank on the
other side was destined to receive the earth from the station ground.
No other place was found suitable except the top of the hill
112 feet (108 Austr. feet) above the formation level of the cutting.
A rope tramway was laid up the hill, with a maximum gradient of
1 in 3, and with double lines for ascending and descending trucks.
The engines were placed on the top, as the bottom was considered
insecure, and space was wanting.

From the top of the incline the various tip and shunting sidings
branched off, and from the bottom those for filling and arranging.
With trains of four trucks, of 55 cwt. each, and a frictional resist-
ance of 10 cwt., a tractive force of 74f cwt. was necessary, or for a
speed of 5 feet per second, 87 HP. An old locomotive was bought
and adapted for the purpose, by substituting for the driving-
wheels toothed wheels with gearing for turning the rope drums.
The engine was lifted up to its place by jacks along a road laid
for the purpose. The inclines were laid 6 feet apart from centre
to centre, to a gai;ge of 27 inches, with rails destined for the
permanent way; for the sidings lighter rails were used. The
trucks for side-tipping were made on the Bystak system. On
the bottom of the wagon ~p iron castings were fixed, the vertical
flange of which rested in grooved castings or sockets bolted to
the under frame ; while running, the top was fastened down by
a strap and key to the under frame. The latter was stiffened
by diagonal bracing of flat iron. The couplings of the wagons
were, for greater security, connected by a bar running tlirough
the frames.

The ropes, of stout wire, were l-^ inch thick ; two were required
for working, during which the}'' were well smeared, while a third
rope was kept in reserve, 'i'he diameter of the rope drums was
comparatively small, viz., 7 feet 6 inches, and they were broad
enough to take up the entire rope. Along the centre of the roads,
20 feet aj)art, there were guiding rollers, and at the top of
the incline grooved wheels to guide the rope before passing on to
the drums.

The feed water for the boiler was sujiplied from a well at
the foot of the incline, and was pumped up by a Decker's steam
pump, through a l;j-inch gas j^ipe, into a water-tight reservoir
at the top. Steam was supplied to the pump from the locomo-
tive boiler by a Ig-inch j^ipe laid in a trench, surrounded by
straw, a turn or loop being made in the pipe halfway to allow
it to expand and contract. The pump delivered 2 to 2^ cubic
feet per minute to the height of 168 feet, and worked 1^ hour
per day during dinner-time. Telegraj^hic communication of the
simplest kind was laid between the upj^er and the lower stations,,
which were not visible to each other. The roads at the top

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 325

and bottom were worked by horses. The line was ready for
working in three months, and the first trains were run on the Ist
Jxxne, 1871. At the end of the year the cutting was finished, but
the engine was kept at work, drawing part of the earth excavated
from the tunnel, till April 1872.

The whole time of Avorking may be estimated at two hundred
and ten full working days, omitting Sundays, holidays, and bad-
weather days. In this time there were forwarded : —

Out of the cutting . . . 8,235 cubic Klafters.
Out of the tunnel . . . 1,675 „

Making a total of . . . 9,910 „

= 67,586 cubic metres (88,402 cubic yards)

<s>f earthwork measured in ciitting, or an average of 421 cubic
yards ("322 cubic metres) per day. During the chief part of the
work, however, the quantity forwarded per day was 523 cubic
yards (400 cubic metres).

The expenses were : —

Preparing and laying roads, making trucks, pur-
chasing and erecting machinery, pump, and
telegraph, less price obtained by sale of loco-
motive, but without the cost of sleepers, rails of
incline, and fastenings, which were borrowed .

The working expenses of inclined road, including
shunting of trucks, cost of coal, breaking-up
and removal of road and machinery, but not
including transport in cutting and on plateau .

which is equal to fl. 3 • 79 per cubic kilometre, or 8^cl. per cubic
yard (56 kr. per cubic metre).

H. D.

^.22,170 94

£. s.
1,847 11

/.IS.S.^O 56

1,279 19

/.37,530 50

3,127 10

St. Gotliard Tunnel.

(Annales Industrielles, November 29 and December 6 and 27, 1874.)

During the month of August (1874), at the Goschenen end, be-
tween 1,125*8 and 1,245-8 metres from the mouth, the heading-
passed through gneiss and talc-schist. The grey gneiss, met with at
1,009-4 metres, continued for 176-8 metres, containing 1*6 metre
of granitic gneiss rich in felspar. The mean bearing of the schist
structure was 72° K.E., and the dip, 76° S,, while the bands of talc-
schist, which occurred in the gneiss, bore north-west and south-
east, and dipped first to the north and then to the south. The
talc-schist (1,176-2 to 1,199-4 metres) was only distinguished from
the veins of talc and mica by its great thickness. In some places
the presence of quartz and of felspar crystals caused the talc-schist

o26 ABSTRACTS OF PAPEKS IN

to pass into giandulous gneiss with thin laminae. The main
"bearing of the schist structure was 65° N.E., with a dip of 83° N.,
the nunierons fissures forming an acute angle with the strike of the
schist. The grey gneiss (1,099 "4 metres) differed from the previous
structure by its resemblance to giandulous gneiss, and by the
presence of a considerable quantity of grey mica in connection with
brown glistening mica. Between 1,202-4 and 1,206*2 metres, and
also between 1,212 -5 and 1,219* 5 metres, interruptions occurred
of granitic gneiss, partly decomposed into geodiferous rock. The
bedding of the gneiss generallj^ bore 66° N.E., and dipped from
80^ to 84^ N., a bearing which was shared by the talc inter-
ruptions and the veins of felspathic granite. Besides these veins,
others of talc and felspathic granite occurred, which bore more
to the north, and dipped north-north-east, like the fissures. In
one of the horizontal fissures (1,233 metres) a pocket of rock crystal
was found on the sole of the heading.

A few drops falling from the roof was all the water encountered.
The mean temperature at the working face, 1,273 feet (388 metres)
below the surface of the mountain, was 65°* 7 Fahr. (18°* 7 cent.),
while that of the outer air at the mouth was 65° -5 Fahi*.
(18° * 6 cent.). A progress of nearly 394 feet (] 20 metres) was made
during August, giving a mean daily advance of 12 feet 8^ inches
(3-9 metres).

At the Airolo end, the heading passed through garnet-bearing
mica-schist, between 988 and 1,014 metres, containing some horn-
blende, silver-grey mica (a predominating feature), a considerable
quantity of quartz, and brown garnets. It had a mean bearing of 55°
N.E., with a dip of 69° N.W., and was but slightly fissured. Be-
tween 1,014 and 1,040*6 metres, the heading passed through hom-
blendic mica-schist containing garnets, the predominating substance
of which was grey quartz, with somewhat softer white quartz. Grej'
and white quartzite occurred between 1,019*5 and 1,021*5 metres,
and also between 1,022*5 and 1,026*5 metres. The quartz and
hornblende rendered the hornblendic mica-schist hard and tena-
cious. The mean bearing of the distorted strata was 52'- N.E.,
with a dip of 58° N.W. The principal fissures formed an acute
angle with the centre line of the tunnel; between 1,014 and
1,020 metres their bearing was irregular and lined with serpen-
tine and calcareous spar. At 1,040*6 metres, the heading entered
a schistose quartzite containing hornblende, rich in fine scales
of silver-grey mica, but with scarcely any garnets. The thin,
distinct, and regular beds bore 48° N.E., dipped 66° N.W., and
were only islightly fissuied. All the strata passed through during
August crop out to the surface in the same order along the St.
Gothard road, between the Chiasso quarries and the plateau of
Tremola.

The above-named strata, though quite dry when first bored into,
afterwards allowed a small quantity of water to ooze through.
The mean temperature at the working face was 63° '5 Fahr.
(17° '5 cent.), Avhile that of the outer air at the mouth was.

rOREIGX TRANSACTIOXS AXD PERIODICALS. 327

60'^ Fahr. (18° '3 cent.). The heading made a progress of
1 !».'!+ feet (59 metres) during August, showing a mean dailj''
advance of 6 feet 4 inches (1 '^'o metre). A large quantity of per-
manent-way material was delivered, and the buildings on the
Lugano and Chias^so line made great progress.

During September the heading at the Guschenen end passed
through gneiss containing interstratifications of talc-schist and
felspathic granite, in the form of veins. The gneiss varied greatly
in structure, and at 1,272, 1,296, and 1,338 metres, was, for a short
distance, decomposed into geodiferous rock. The two most import-
ant veins of talc-schist occurred between 1,259 and 1,264 metres
and between 1,340 and 1,345 metres. The largest mass of fel-
spathic granite was entered at 1,348 metres ; in it were found
ordinary pyrites and epidote ; more rarely, magnetic pyrites ; and
on one occasion (1,254 metres) molybdenite. The mean bearing
of the gneiss beds was 55^^ N.E., with a dip of 81° S.E. ; and the
bearing of the talc veins difiered but slightly. The veins of
felspathic granite either bore in the direction of the bedding of
the rock, or in the prevailing direction of the fissures, N.N.W.
Behind the thick vein of talc-schist, the parallel structure of the
gneiss beds had an abnormal bearing, viz., from N. 50° to 62° E.,
and a dip of 45° to 79° N., thus corresj)onding with the bands of
felspathic granite. The usual bearing of the fissures was from
N. 6° to 36° W., dipping considerably, generally towards the west.
Horizontal fissures appeared but rarely ; and it was in the latter
that the small pockets of rock crj'stal were met with. Some
fissures, the bearing of which was 10° N.W., with a dip of 75° to
90' W., are remarkable as following the direction of the springs
issuing from the clefts in the rocks of the large Upper Vallee du
Diable. A small quantity of water, escaping from one of these
fissures, flowed into the heading, and the geodiferous rock was
almost invariably damp. The mean temperature at the w'orking
face, 1,033 feet (about 315 metres) below the surface of the
mountain, was 64° '5 Fahr. (18° cent.), while that of the outer
air at the mouth was 58° '2 Fahr. (14° '6 cent.). The heading-
made a progress of 355 feet (108*2 metres) this month, showing
a mean daily advance of 11 feet 10 inches (3*607 metres).

At the Airolo end, between 1,047*8 and 1,099 metres, the heading
passed through schistose quartzite, hornblendic mica-schist, and
hornblende. The schistose quartzite formed, up to 1,052 '7 metres,
the continuation of the rock previously described. The horn-
blendic mica-schist (1,052*7 to 1,077 metres) contained garnets,
and, on account of bands of softer quartz and of grey quartzite
that closely succeeded each other, it assumed a streaky appearance,
and was generally very hard. At 1,061 metres, it passed into
schistose quartzite, in which it continued for 4*5 metres, the
quartz having then become the prevailing element. The horn-
blendic mica-schist had, as a rule, a bearing of 51° N.E., with a
dip of 69° N.W., and generally contained fissures lined with ser-
pentine, chlorite, and calcareous spar, at an acute angle with the

328 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

slate structure. Some fissures, bearing north and south, were also
met with, which contained water issuing from the wet strata more
to the northward. Between 1,077 and 1,091-6 metres, a. hard and
tenacious hornblende rock was encountered, principally composed
of blackish-green hornblende, quartz, some felspar, black mica, and
chlorite. Garnets were rarely met with ; but small grains of
ordinary pyrites and magnetic pyrites frequently occurred, as well
as a considerable number of thin veins of crystalline limestone.
The hornblende rock, instead of remaining uniform, alternated
Avith thin layers of hornblendic mica-schist, and also with quartzite
and mica-schist containing chlorite. The mean bearing of the
strata was 46° E., and the dip 66° N.W. At 1,091-6 metres, the
hornblende rock was followed by a slight interstratification of
quartzite. The infiltrations of water, which began again at 1,068
metres, must have yielded, from this point to 1,099 metres, as much
as 1 • 1 gallon (5 litres) per second. The total flow of water in the
tunnel, gauged at 1,092 metres, was 51*48 gallons (234 litres) per
second, and its temperature varied from 55° -8 to 56^-1 Fahr.
(13° -2 to 13° -4 cent.). The mean temperature of the air at the
working face was 62° -3 Fahr. (16°- 8 cent.), while that of the outer
air at the mouth was 59° -4 Fahr. (15°- 2 cent.). Owing to the
hardness and tenacity of the rock, the want of compressed air, and
the inexperience of the men, the heading only made a progress of
168 feet (51 • 2 metres), showing a mean daily advance of 5 feet
7 inches (1-707 metre). The M'Kean, Ferroux, Dubois and
rran9ois, and Sommeiller rock drills were used, an average
number of eighteen machines being employed at once ; and boring
by hand proceeded in several places.
^ ^ ^ J. w. P.

On the Elasticity of Permanent Way. By M. Caille.

(Memoires de la Socie'te des Ingenieurs Civils, No. 1, 1874, pp. 133-167.)

The Author refers to a communication read before the Society
upon the specimens of permanent way collected in the Paris Uni-
versal Exhibition in 1867. In 1864, the late M. Flachat pointed
out the necessity of increasing the weight of rails, because their
deflection, between the points of support, was appreciable even
beneath the wheels of passenger-carriages and goods wagons. A
short time afterwards he observed that deflection destroyed the
rails, and prevented any increase in speed, because increase of
speed was only possible by increasing the weight of the rolling
stock.

In 1864 the main French lines had adopted rails weighing from
68 to 75 lbs. per yard, and, for the most part, the size and distribu-
tion of the sleepers still remain the same. If these types are

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 329

considered too light, and there is a tendency to increase their
strength, the means hitlierto adopted to preserve the integrity of
the permanent way, and to prevent excessive deflection, are in-
sxiffieient ; but it does not follow that deflection of the rails within
certain limits may not be permitted without injury to the trafiic.
In the forty years during which the cross-sleeper road has been
tried, it has proved itself the only one capable of economically
fulfilling all the conditions of stability and security.

Upon this basis, the Author examines the construction of various
types of permanent way, especially that with cross sleepers, and
inquires into the conditions regulating their maintenance. During
the first twenty years of railway history, when traffic was insig-
nificant, weights small, and sjieeds low, single or double-headed
rails, carried in suitable chairs spiked to the sleepers, resting on
the ballast, answered all purposes. As these primitive conditions
altered, modifications and improvements in the form of the per-
manent way followed of necessity. But the nature of the ballast,
its distribution over the formation, and the possibility of increasing
or reducing its mobility, do not appear to have been the subject
of special investigation. The importance of employing ballast has
always been recognised, and different rails have been designed with
the view of reducing its mobility, which, with all types of way,
resulted in irregularity of bearing surfaces, highly destructive to
the rails and rolling stock. To remedy this, packing was resorted
to, with only temporary relief, the way remaining exposed to
alterations in its normal levels. This led to an investigation
directed especially to the weakness of rails, the excessive distance
between the sleepers, the insecurity of the joints, and so forth.
The flexure of the rails could be corrected in two ways; by
increasing their weight, or by bringing the sleepers closer together.
By preference the weights of the rails were increased — but insuf-
ficiently. As to the shocks sustained, by the ends of the rails
under a passing load, the instability of the adjacent sleepers proved
clearly, that it was necessary to prevent the flexure and sinking
of these joints, and to unite the ends of the rails efficiently. Larger
sleepers, placed more closely together, were introduced to meet the
first difficulty ; but in spite of all, the joints remain the weakest
points of the permanent way. The temporary deflection of the
rails under a passing load is not produced close to the load only,
but at a distance on either side of its point of application, and the
distance between the two points of deflection, and the point of
contact of the load, increases with the rigidit}' of the rails.

It follows that regular deflection cannot exist unless the rails
are uniformly rigid — a condition manifestly impossible. Thus, as
the successive points of a rail sink before an advancing load, as
the latter approaches the joint, the end of the adjacent rail is not
able to continue the movement, and the joint forms, as it Avere, a
fixed point, and consequently a projection, which is struck by the
load and produces a peimanent sinking. The Author, after stating
that joint chairs and joint-chair sleepers have been abandoned, and

330 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

that fishes are used, discusses the principles involved in the several
classes of fish joints, each rej)resented by many forms.

Turning to the actual condition of permanent way upon French
railways, he points out that, to obtain a uniform movement of the
rails and sleepers, the ballast should be as homogeneous as pos-
sible. If sand be employed, it must be pure and of regular quality ;
if stone, it must be evenly broken. Sand opposes a comparatively
feeble resistance to passing loads, but it yields without reaction,
and reduces to a sensible degree the efiect of the blows upon the
sujDerstructure of the way. If the ballast be of bad quality,
its mobility may be increased by rain, reduced by dryness, and
destroyed by frost.

The best ballast is clean gravel; but considering the require-
ments of packing, a mixture of gravel and fine sand is prefer-
able. Broken stone must be often used, but it should be very
hard, evenly broken, and not mixed with earth. Packing is
required on account of the mobility of the ballast, to prevent the
sleepers from taking a middle bearing ; to effect which, a space
of from 12 inches to 30 inches is left unpacked in the centre.
The packing is therefore made on both sides of each rail, to an
extent varying with the nature of the material employed. With
broken stone, the extent ranges from 4 to 6 feet for each sleeper,
with sand ballast it is generally 6 feet 6 inches long. The
packing thus introduced may be regarded as a wedge, serving
to restore the sleepers to their normal level. But the operation
reduces the areas of support, and transfers the pressure to the lower
bed of ballast, which is less mobile than that actually carrying the
sleepers. These supports, therefore, should have an equal extent,
and be equally distributed on each side of the rails ; a condition
rarely met with when the sleepers are good, and never when old
and new cross-ties are mingled. It is necessary to give the super-
structure a support, not only permeable, but uniform, to secure
regularity in the vibrations of rails and sleepers.

Irregularity of movement in rails is due to imperfect fishing,
to faults of construction, to defective laying, and to uneven wear,
if they be of iron. Among the detailed causes of irregularity of
the road are — the cutting into sleepers by chairs, or by the base
of the rail, the flexure of the latter, and the gradual enlargement
of the holes in the sleepers into which the jjins or trenails are
driven to secure the chair or rail. The cutting into the sleeper in
straight lengths of way creates an inward inclination of the rails,
which falsifies the gauge ; while on curves, the reverse takes place.

Immobility in permanent way must result in its raj^id destruc-
tion ; but it may be useful to direct attention to the causes which
led to the failure of certain modifications, seeking to impart greater
rigidity, and thereby to reduce elasticity. Comparative rigidity
can be obtained either by employing a cross-sleeper road, with rails
of sufficient stiffness ; by giving to the rails rigidity and bearing
•surface large enough, as in the Barlow system, to secure the im-
mobility of the ballast ; or by placing the rails on longitudinal

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 331

sleepers of such an area that tlie ballast shall remain nndisturbed.
The same result can be obtained in a cross-tie road, eitlier by auo-
menting the stiftuess of the rail by increasing the number of sleepers,
so that the passing load is distributed over a sufficient number of
the ties, or by laying the superstructure of either type upon
rock, beton, or masonry. All permanent way should be considered
as a compound structure, essentially required to accommodate itself
to vibration and to the shocks of impact, which increase in inten-
sity as the traffic increases in speetl and weight. The best type
is that which, giving full assurance of security, develops uniformly
the greatest amount of elasticity. Practically, pure sand is in-
compressible when properly consolidated, and if the load be im-
movable. If the supporting surface is narrow, and the movement
of the load puts the sand in motion, the sleeper will penetrate
until it meets with sufficient resistance to check further displace-
ment. Experience shows that the permanent way requires frequent
local packing up, and occasional general lifting and restoration.
Part of the ballast can, however, under certain conditions, resume
its original state after the passing of the load. To estimate the
weight transmitted to the ballast, it may be assumed that the
length of packing for each sleeper is 79 inches. The bearing sur-
face, therefore, will be about 10 inches x 79 inches = 790 square
inches, neglecting the resistance of the ballast in the unpacked
parts. If it be assumed that the ties all sink under the load,
that the rails are rigid enough, and the sleepers so close together
as to prevent deflection of the rails between them, it may be
taken that the load afi'ects at least four sleepers according to the
stiffness of the rails, and thus the total supporting area will be
about 3,160 square inches for a supposed load of 26,000 lbs. The
total weight on the ballast would thus be 8*2 lbs. per square inch.
But it is a rapidly moving load acting upon a free vibrating
frame, the rigidity of which is sufficient to allow the rails to
resume their normal place after the load has passed. The sup-
ports of the rails, including the packing, will thus penetrate the
ballast, and this penetration will increase in depth and uniformity
as the vibrations transmitted are more intense, as the ballast is
better and of more regular quality, as the bearing surfaces of the
framework are more equally distributed, and as the frame itself
is less massive.

To sum up the foregoing : — Permanent way, the arrangement of
which checks the vibration of its parts by too great or too little
rigidity, or by the extent or ill -arrangement of its supports, de-
velops immobility, hardness of ballast, and comj)aratively rapid
destruction.

The double-headed rail, though it possesses the advantage that
both tables may be used for traffic, is bad in form, and weak. Its
inherent faults are not compensated by the advantage of reversing
it, and this reversing indeed compromises the security of the road,
destroys its elasticity, and favours abnormal deflection.

The Vignoles' rail, on the other hand, seems to combine se-

332 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

curity with durability. Eesistance to rupture is ensured by the
use of elastic iron of great tensile strength for the foot; and
durability is obtained by employing hard iron for the head. But
suitable iron is extremely difficult to procure, and the full advan-
tage of the section can only be secured by employing steel. The
Vignoles' rail, moreover, possesses greater transverse strength
than the double-headed rail; it is also furnished in greater
lengths, reducing the number of joints. In first cost, too, the ad-
vantage rests with the Vignoles' road in the proportion of from
o to 7 per cent.

If a Vignoles' road be examined under a passing load, it will be
noticed that its points of support have less motion than those be-
5ieath a double-headed rail. This arises from the more numerous
cross sleepers, and especially from the interruption in the trans-
mission of vibration to the sleepers and ballast, due to the weakness
of the connections. The way can preserve its regularity longer,
but its rigidity is apparent when exposed to impact. This regu-
larity itself is only relative, changing constantly under the sinking
and wear of the road. The stiffness and, to a certain extent, the
transverse rigidity of the Vignoles' rail, and the method of se-
curing it to the sleepers, aggravate the effects of the deviations,
arising either from the wear of the rails, or from the state of the
sleepers and ballast.

On account of the weakness of the joints, the Vignoles' rail
requires careful examination, especially on curves. Experiments in
France and in Germany demonstrate that these rails undergo tem-
porary displacement during the passage of trains, and in this
respect the Vignoles' rail possesses less security than the double-
headed rail. Both have a tendency to assume an inclined posi-
tion under the influence of the load, either inwards or outwards.
In the Vignoles' rail this tendency can onl}^ be counteracted by
employing saddles or by increasing the width of the foot, an in-
crease upon which narrow limits are set ; with the double-headed
rail, on the other hand, the requisite support can be obtained by
chairs.

The Author then discusses the relative advantage and disadvan-
tage of the two systems of rails, and concludes that the difficulty
of choosing between them arises from the fact that the Vignoles'
rail maintains greater regularity than the double-headed rail,
and thus partly compensates for its want of elasticity, while the
latter loses by its mobility, and consequent irregularity, part of
the advantage due to elasticity. The faults of the double-headed
rail may be partially obviated by the use of good ballast, and
by increased support, whilst the disadvantages of the Vignoles'
section arising chiefly from the weakness of its fastenings, can
only be remedied by changes that would introduce considerable
modifications.

The deductions drawn by the Author arc the following : —
1. That it is impossible to obtain absolute regularity by any
system of permanent way.

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 333

2. Tliat stability cannot be secured by immobilit}' without
sacrificing durability.

o. That permanent way can only be economical, when it is com-
posed of durable materials possessing and retaining the necessary
conditions of elasticity.

4. That, from this last point of view, the mobility of the bal-
last, however uniform and homogeneous, only supplies an irregular
and insufficient means for developing the required elasticity.

5. That, moreover, the elasticity of permanent way does not
exist at the joints, and can only be preserved throughoiit by
the impracticable condition of maintaining the solidity of all the
fastenings.

6. That the problem can only be solved by the adoption of a
permanent way entirely of iron or of steel, which shall be elastic,
yet possessing sufficient resistance, the flexibility of which shall
be uniform at the joints and at the centre of the rail ; where the
stability — in a certain sense absolute — harmonises with mobility,.
and the elasticity of which, independent of any assistance from
the ballast, secures the preservation of the whole system.

APPENDIX.

In the following Appendix, the then existing and proposed systems of per-
manent way upon the Eastern, the Northern, the Orleans, and the Southern
railways of France are described : —

The Eastern Eailway.

[The double-headed rail, weighing 75-5 lbs. per yard, is abandoned.]

An old type of iron rail, Vignoles' section, 71 lbs. per yard, hei£i;ht 4-724 inches,
•width of foot 3"937 inches. The rails are in lengths of 19 feet 8 inches, are
fished, and each length is on six or seven sleepers, including the joint sleeper.
The joints are snpix)rted by two sleepers adjacent to the joint sleeper, placed
29 inches on each side of the latter. Bed plates are employed at the joints
inclosing the foot of the rail, received into the sleeper, and are provided with
four holes for the fastening bolts. Longitudinal movement of the rails is
prevented by their being notched on both sides at each end -^^ inch, and for
a length equal to the bed plate.

Type 1. Steel rails, Vignoles' section, 75'3 lbs. per yard, in lengths of

19 feet 8 inches, laid as above.
Type 2. Steel rails, Vignoles' section, 60 lbs. per yard, height 4*724 inches,
width of foot 3-897 inches, length 19 feet 8 inches, united by a sus-
pended fish joint, carried on seven sleepers. The foot is neither
notched nor pierced. Longitudinal movement is checked by a small
iron bracket fastened to a sleeper by two wood screws, and butting
against the fish-plate. The sleepers are of beech or pine creosoted. This
section is specially designed to replace the two preceding, and for heavy
traffic.

Lyons PiAilway.

[Abandonment of double-headed rail, weighing 77 lbs. per yard, laid down

in 1849.]

Old type of iron rail, Vignoles' section, 70-5 lbs. jier yard (1857), height
5-11 inches, width 3*93 inches, web f inch thick, length 19 feet 8 inches.

334 ABSTKACTS OF PAPERS IN

fislied and carried on six sleepers, including; joint sleeper. There is a bed plate
lit each sleeper. The sleepers at the joint are placed 3L inches apart. Longi-
tudinal movement is Checked by a Joracket fixed on both sides of the rail
in the notches of the foot.

Type 1. Steel (1867), Vignoles' section, 78 lbs. per yard, height 5*11 inches,
width 5-I1 inclics, length 19 feet 8 inches, with suspended fish joint,
fished and carried on eight sleepers. On each side of the joints four
sleepers are placed 11'8 inches and 27'5 inches apart.
Type 2. Steel (1873). In this type the thickness of the web is 0*55 inch
instead of 0'629 inch, as in the preceding section, so that the weight is
reduced by 2*2 lbs. per yard.
Type 3. Steel (1871), weight 70'3 lbs. per yard, height 5"039 inches, width
3"93 inches, web 0*55 inch thick, length 19 feet 8 inches, with sus-
pended fish joint, carried on seven sleepers. Longitudinal movement
is checked Ijy a steel cylindrical pin fixed in a hole in the foot of the
rail, and let into one of the sleepers.

Northern Railway.

^Abandonment of double-headed rail, weighing 74 lbs. per yard, laid dow-n

in 1846.]

Old type of iron rail, Vignoles' section, 74'3 lbs. per yard (1856), height
4*921 inches, width of foot 4"133 inches, width of head 2-44 inches, web 0*629
inch thick, length 19 feet 8 inches, fished and carried on seven sleepers. Lon-
gitudinal movement is prevented by iron keys placed in notches at the end of
■each rail. Sleepers of beech and elm prepared hj the Boucherie process.
Type ] . Steel weighing 77*3 lbs. per yard. Similar to the preceding.
Type 2. Steel (1870), Vignoles' section, weight 61 lbs. j)er yard, height
4"921 inches, width of foot 3"81 inches, width of head 2*2 inches,
thickness of the web 0*472 inch, fished over joint sleepers, length 26 feet
2 inches. Similar to the iron rail as above ; fastenings also the same.
This rail is carried on nine sleepers.
The joints of the two rails are not placed opposite. This appears to be a
bad system.

The Orleans Railway.

[Two types of Vignoles' and double-headed rails are employed.]

Vignoles' rails are employed on those parts of the line which have the most
frequent change of gradients.

An old section of double-headed rail (1849), weighing 72 lbs. per yard,
height 5*198 inches, length 18 feet, first carried on five, afterwards provided
with suspended fish joints, and then carried on six sleepers. Similar type in
steel (1864). Size of chairs subsequently increased.

An old type of Vignoles' rail of iron (1861), 71 lbs. per yard. Same form
as the old type of the Lyons railway.

Same type in steel 75 lbs. per yard.

The Western Railway.
[Double-headed rails exclusively used.]

An old section in iron, 75 lbs. per yard, height 5*118 inches, length 16 feet
4 inches, carried on five and six cross sleepers, including the joint sleeper.
■Chairs with large base, and fish-joint chairs employed. Longitudinal move-
ment is checked by bolts placed in notches or holes of the joint chairs.

Same type in steel (1870), weight 77*8 lbs. per yard, height 5*118 inches,
length 19 feet 8 inches, suspended fish joint, and carried by eight sleepers.
Movement prevented by a stud in one of the fish joints extending into tlic
chair.

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODIC A.LS. 335

Southern Railway.
[Double-headed rail ojily employed.]

An old type of iron rail 74 lbs. per yard (1857), height 5*27 inches, width
of head 2*48 inches, length 18 feet, suspended fish joint, carried on six sleepers ;
weight of chairs 22 lbs.

Similar type in steel 78 lbs. per yard, laid in the same way.

J. D.

Experiences in the worhing of Mountain Tutilways.

By M. Steinsberg, Manager of the Poti-Tiflis Railway.

(Organ flir die Fortschritte des Eisenbahnwesens, No. 2, 1874, pp. 61-67.)

The construction of engines for steep gradients seems to exclude
their adaptability for sharp curves. On the Poti-Tiflis railway
the ordinary minimum traffic requires an adhesion upon the rails
corresponding to a weight of 90 tons, or taking 15 tons per axle,
six axles are required to sustain the adhesive weight. On the other
hand, the sharp curves necessitate a wheel hase not exceeding 8 feet
for curves of lo;^-chains radius, and of 7 feet 6 inches for those
having a radius of 8 chains. Engines able to perform such work,
at a mean speed of 12^ miles an hour, should be of about 600 IIP.,
and have a heating surface of more than 2,150 square feet ; this
would involve such a length of boiler as to render it difficult to
procure steadiness upon a short wheel base.

The great weight required increases the injurious lateral effect
of the wheels against the rails, upon curves of small radius, and
causes a waste of labour in overcoming the grinding of the
outer wheels upon the rails. Another difficulty with engines for
steep gradients is to keep the tubes and the top of the fire-box
covered with water, this restricts the heating surface necessary
for the production of sufficient steam, as in a boiler 22 feet long,
on a gradient of 1 in 22, there is a difference of 1 foot in the level
of the water surface at the two ends.

In engines for sharp curves, in consequence of the small wheel
base and the unfavourable position of the boiler, an uneasy rolling
motion is unavoidable, and the small diameter of the wheels, neces-
sitated by the short wheel base, greatly increases the resistance to
motion of the machine.

If this resistance is expressed by the formula

where

p = the weight of the engine without the wheels ;
Pi = the weight of the wheels ;
d = the diameter of the axle bearings ;
D = the diameter of the wheels ;
/ = the coefficient of rolling friction = 0*001;
/^ = the coefficient of turning friction = 0 • 0 1 8 when
good lubricating material is used ;

336 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

it appears that the resistance to motion increases not only with
the weight of the engine, but also with the reduction of the size of
the wheels. These difficulties seem, at first sight, to be overcome
by the ' Fairlie ' engine.

Theoretically, the entire weight of the locomotive serves for
obtaining adhesion, and from its position on two movable frames
(bogies), it admits of the short wheel base necessary for passing
round sharp curves. By the favourable position of the fire-box at
the centre of the boiler, the relation of water level with reference
to its top and the tubes is reduced to one-half the difference of
level which would exist if the fire-box were placed at the end of
the boiler. But these engines appear in another light when they
have been observed at work; unavoidable defects become apparent,
which are not mere faults in construction, but inherent to the
system.

The most notable defect is the susceptibility of the steam-pipes
to injury. A one-sided raising of the bogie frame, or the small
shocks given to it by every alteration in the speed or difference
in the level of the rails, affect the pipes at their point of connec-
tion. This results from the boilers being attached so loosely to
the imder frames, that every shock to the latter is injuriously felt
by them before being transferred to the upper and greater mass of
the machine. This defect became apparent on the Poti-Tiflis
railway, where, in consequence of the weakness of the carriage
couplings, the trains had at first to be pushed, instead of hauled,
up the inclines. The frequent small back shocks to the forward
wheel frame of the engine, in consequence of the variations of level
or speed, occasioned perpetual injuries to the steam-pipes, so that
the system of pushing had to be discontinued, and the number of
carriages per train rediaced, to enable them to be pulled up with
safety. In the engines for the Poti-Tiflis line, the manufacturers
had endeavoured to remove this defect by constructing the
smoke-boxes of very thin plates, but they had afterwards to be
stiffened.

Another important evil of the system is that the play or move-
ment of the Fairlie engine is exclusively in a horizontal direction ;
that is, in a plane parallel to the rails, no play or movement taking
place vertically. Mr. Eamsbottom tried the engines on a rising
gradient, succeeded by a falling gradient beyond ; so that on passing
the summit the weight was shifted from the forward to the
trailing wheels. When this occurs, slipping of the wheels on
the rails follows as a natural consequence. This is not only
injurious, but dangerous, as tending to throw the engine off the
line ; for it has long been a recognised fact that the rails do
not possess sufficient lateral resistance against a rolling body,
unless kept in position by a superimposed weight. The expe-
rience derived from the working of the Poti-Tiflis railway gave
similar results. Careful drivers observed that during the passage
over the mountains in the early morning, when the rails were damp
and greasy, the wheels of the leading bogie frequently slipped on

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 337

iron bridges or viaducts ; whereas with the same state of the rails on
the ordinary road there was sufficient adhesion to prevent slipping.
The Author believes the explanation to be, that there is generally
a difference in the level of the rails on iron bridges and on the
adjoining embankments. Upon steep lines, therefore, the shifting
of a portion of the load from one set of wheels lessens the necessary
adhesion on the rails and throws extra weight upon the other
axles, to the detriment of the Fairlie engine, especially as, calcu-
lating on its easy running, the axles are one-sixth weaker than
in ordinary engines of the same weight.

The tendency of these engines when thrown off the rails is to
diverge, more than locomotives with fixed leading wheels, from the
direction of the axis of the line, on account of the movable character
of the bogie. This defect becomes more perceptible owing to the
super-elevation of the outer rail on curves, which alters the position
of the bogie frame, and prevents it from giving the long boiler a
proper support ; while by partially removing the weight from one
rail and increasing it upon the other, the joints of the rails are
exposed to dangerous strains.

The question of greater cost of repairs is as yet insufficiently
kno\vn, but it is creating alarm. From the peculiar connection
of the boiler with the wheel frames upon which it rests, shocks
to the buffers do not distribute themselves equally over the whole
machine as in the case of other engines, but are borne principally
by the bogie frames. An accident on the Poti-Tiflis railway ex-
hibited this fact clearly ; in a collision at high speed between a
small tender engine and one of Fairlie's, the latter was greatly
injured, while the former was able to resume work.

These double locomotives are the more expensive, as one engine
is rendered useless while the other is undergoing repairs. More-
over, for every four in stock only two and a half can be kept in
working order, or only two where the traffic is heavy, whereas with
ordinary engines the proportion is six out of eight.

These defects are conclusive evidence that the Fairlie engine
ought to be restricted to mountain and mineral lines of secondary
importance, and of narrow gauge. Under no circumstances is it
suitable for the regular working of a mountain railway, where
safety and regularity of traffic are indispensable.

The Author then describes an engine which he elaborated in
combination with Herr Schau, Technical Manager of the Sigl
works, Vienna. The eight-wheeled coupled engine has a wheel
base of 10 feet 8 inches (3-25 metres), or (omitting the leading
and trailing axles, each of which is free to move laterally) a rigid
wheel base of 3 feet 6 inches (1-075 metre), the diameter of the
wheels being 3 feet 3 inches (1 metre). "With an effective steam
pressure of 9 atmospheres this engine developed a tractive power
of 8 tons, which is equal to the adhesion of the engine for a co-
efficient of friction of J. This engine met the requirements of
the Poti-Tiflis railway, but in order to reduce the dead weight
still further, a 45-ton six-wheeled coupled engine is suggested as

[1874-75. N.S.] , z

338 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN '

sufficient for ordinary weather, the assistance of a second engine-
being emiDloj'cd when the state of the rails requires it.

The Author adds some calculations as to the maximum gradient
and minimum curve admissible on mountain railways, and also as
to the number of carriages which should constitute a train in
various cases.

E. C.

Description of some Narroiv-Gauge Bailivays.
By M. Ch. Ledoux.

f (Annales des Mines, Nos. 2 & 3, 1874, 153 pp. 6 pi.)

M. Ledoux investigated the details and specialities of narrow-
gauge railways in various countries, and has selected the follow-
ing examples : — Line of Ergastiria in Greece, of Mokta-el-Hadid
in Algeria, of Eochebelle, and of Cessous and Trebiau in the Gard.
The eighteen smelting furnaces at the extremity of Ergastiria, on
the eastern side of Laurium, a province of Attica, and about 7
miles from Cape Sunium, were established in 1864 for the treat-
ment of ' ekbolades,' the slag of the ancients. To reduce the cost
of transport M. Ledoux was entrusted with the construction of a
narrow-gauge railway.

The route was marked by the road, uniting Berzeko with the
coast, which crosses the central chain of hills by the pass of
Eotonde, 5G0'8 feet above datum. The starting point is 11 '8 feet,
and the terminal point 286*3 above datum. A maximum gradient
of 1 in 28 was adopted between the works and the summit, for
empty wagons only, and of 1 in 38 between the summit and Ber-
zeko, for loaded wagons. The gauge chosen was that of Mokta-el-
Hadid, 1 metre between the inside edges of the rails. The first
section had curves of a minimum radius of 197 feet, and the second
of 230 feet.

The principal dimensions of the rail are — height, 3 • 54 inches ;
width of top flange, 1-89 inch; thickness of web, 0*47 inch:
width of bottom flange, 2*95 inches. The profile of the rail is
adapted to fit the fish-plate. The inclination to the vertical of
the line of contact is 125° 42'. It is moderately deep, the ratio
of the depth to the half- width of the bottom plate being 2*4.
For similar rails in actual use the value of this ratio is — Lyons,
2 and 2*6; Northern of France, 2*38; Eastern, 2 * 42 ; Cologne-
Minden, 2*71. The fear, that in consequence of the sharp curves
there would be a tendency to tilt the rail over on the outside edge
of the bottom flange, has not been justified bj'' experience. The
exterior rails maintain their position, which proves that the
width of the bottom flange is sufficient. The outward tendency
has also been obviated by giving a great super-elevation, and a

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 339

considerable inclination of the rails towards the centre of the road.
The rails are of Bessemer steel, and they weigh 41 lbs. per lineal
yard. They were manufactured at Bessegcs, and their cost was
jLO OS. per ton, delivered in trucks at that station.

The following is a resume of the total cost of the work : —

Excavation, including labour, powder, and plant, &c. . . 3,954

Tunnel, including labour, powder, and plant, &c. . . . 3,136

Works of art 1,584

Ballasting, labour and materials 903

Permanent way, do. 7 , 838

Level crossings, cottages, and fencing 134

Fixed materials, crossings, reservoirs, weighing machines 807

Engineering and staff expenses 1 , 624

Total 19,980

The total length, inclusive of the sidings at Ergastiria, is 6 miles
2 furlongs 1 chain. The cost per mile of the main line was
£3,354 (52,121 francs per kilometre), as against £2,711 (42,135
francs per kilometre), the amount per mile such a line would have
cost in France.

The tank engines, made at the works of Messrs. Andre Koechlin
& Co., at Mulhouse, at a cost of £1,250 each, were designed specially
to suit the peculiarities of the line by M. Beugniot, the chief
engineer of those works. The particulars of the boiler are as
follow : — proof pressure per square inch, 128 lbs. ; thickness of the
plates, vi^jj inch; number of the tubes, 125; internal diameter of
the tubes. If inch; length of the tubes, 9 feet 7 inches; heating-
surface of the fire-box, 46*5 square feet; heating surface of the
tubes, 487 square feet; total heating surface, 533*5 square feet;
capacity of the boiler, 407 gallons. The fire-box is widened out
towards the interior to give more grate area. There is a slope on
the top of the fire-box from front to rear of 1 in 28, so that the toj)
is level when the engine is descending the same gradient. This is
done to avoid the risk of burning the top of the fire-box when
the engine is about to descend, as hapjDened once at Berzeko.
There are two pumps, and one Gifiard's injector. The tanks haA'e
a total capacity of 1,060 gallons. The boilers are able to generate
steam very rajiidly, owing principally to the great fire-box sur-
face (more than one-twelfth of the whole), as well as to the short
length of the tubes. The dimensions of the cvlinders are —
diameter, 13J inches; length of stroke, 18 inches.

The frame is composed of two side beams of plate iron 8^^ inches
by t inch. The overhang in the front is 6 feet 4 inches, in the
rear 8 feet ^ inch. The entire width of the frame is 7 feet
6^ inches. The length between the buffers is 23 feet 9 inches.
The centre of the boiler is 5 feet 1 inch above the rails, and the
top of the chimney is 10 feet. The transverse beam in front is of
cast iron, in the rear of wrought-iron plate. The axis of the
traction bar is 2 feet 2^ inches above the rails, and the working

z 2

340 ABSTRACTS OF PAPEES IN

deflection allowed to the traction spring is 2 feet 2^ inches. The
wheels are of wrought iron, the tires of Krupp steel. The outside
diameter of the tire is 2 feet 10 j inches, the least thickness is
2 inches, and the width 5 inches. The outside diameter of tlie
flange is 3 feet. The distance between the leading and the middle
wheel is 3 feet 8i inches, between the trailing and the middle
wheel 3 feet 6^ inches ; the wheel base between the centres of the
leading and trailing wheels 7 feet 2|- inches. The wheel base,
including flanges — a point of importance with reference to sharp
curves — is 8 feet 4J inches. The play between the flanges and
the rails is 1 inch on the straight ; but round the curves the
gauge is widened 1;^ inch. With this allowance, the whole wheel
base may be inscribed in a curve of 197 feet, on the supposition
that the bearings have no play on the axles, and that the system
is perfectly rigid. In this case, when the middle and trailing
wheels both touch the rails, the left leading wheel will have a play
of ^ inch, and the right leading wheel of f inch. This was judged
insufficient, and to remedy the defect it was decided to give a play
of f inch to the bearings on the front axle. The wear of the tires,
and especially of the flanges, has been xery great. The tires of
one locomotive were rendered unfit for further use after a life of
12,500 miles. If they could have been turned the locomotive
would probabl}'- have run as far again, but the workshop at
Ergastiria was not provided with the requisite machinery.

This excessive wear shows the necessity of giving to the leading-
axle a play equal to 1 inch, — which would allow the middle wheel
to press against the outside, whilst the trailing wheel pressed
against the inside rail, — and of changing the point of attachment of
the inside bar. The maximum weight of the engine and load
being 22^ tons, and the mean weight 21 tons, the distribution of
the maximum load, ascertained by trial on a weighbridge, is — on
the leading wheels, 7-26 tons; on the middle wheels, 7*64 tons;
on the trailing wheels, 7*69 tons. This satisfactory result
was obtained by using a cast-iron transom in front. The
distribution is of course subject to great variations when the
engine is at work, owing to the motion of the water in the
tanks and in the boiler. In going up the sharpest gradient the
weight of water displaced from front to rear or ' vice versa ' is about
700 lbs. This defect cannot be remedied. Eound the sharpest
curves the cant throws the water from the upper tank into the
lower, and causes a maximum displacement of the load from one
side to the other of about 500 lbs. This defect can easily be
remedied by providing the pipe connecting the two tanks with a
stop cock, which should always be closed except during the filling of
the boiler or the tanks. On the section between Ergastiria and the
summit, the ruling gradients are 1 in 28 and the curves are 200-feet
radius ; between the summit and Berzeko the gradients are 1 in 38
and the curves 230-feet radius. Thus the actual results confirm the
truth of the theoretical rules of construction, the pressure in the
boiler being about 128 lbs. per square inch. The engine works on

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 311

tlic first section with an admission of 30 per cent., on the second
with an admission of 30 to 40 per cent.

The consumption of coal, whilst the engine is performing the
double journey, is 337 lbs. To this must be added, 1st, coal used
in getting up steam, 17(3 lbs. a day, or 60 lbs. per journey; 2nd,
66 lbs. of coal per journey burned during the descent of the gra-
dients, the long stoppages, and the shunting. The total con-
sumption of coal for the run of 11 "13 miles is therefore 4G3 lbs.,
or 41 "Gibs, per mile. Such results may be obtained by skilful
engine-drivers, with engines well designed and kept in good
order. In practice the ordinary consumption is 53 lbs. per mile,
because the pressure in the boiler only averages about 113 lbs. per
square inch.

The line of Mokta-el-Hadid, constructed to convey the products
of the iron mines from Mokta-el-Hadid to the port of Bona, tra-
verses a slightly undulating country, the steepest gradient being
1 in 117, and the sharpest curve 820-feet radius. The gauge is
3 feet 3:^ inches, the width of the formation, exclusive of the side
ditches, being 23 feet. The original Vignoles rails, of wrought iron,
34 lbs. to the yard, at £9 16s. per ton, have been replaced by Bes-
semer steel rails of the Ergastiria pattern, costing at Bona £11 l8s.
per ton. The cost per mile of the original road when ballasted was
£ 1 , 1 9 1 . The five locomotives are six- wheeled coupled tank engines,
weighing 16 tons when empty, and 20^ tons when loaded. Their
cost, erected at Bona, was £1,244. Each train consists of forty
mineral wagons, two carriages, and a break van. The gross load,
including that of the engines, is 310 tons, the useful load 200 tons ;
the average speed is 10^ miles per hour. The ordinary number
of trains is seven per day, which represents a transport of 1,400
tons of ore from Mokta, with a consumption of about 24 lbs. of
coal per mile.

Thus a great amount of traflSc may be carried over a narrow-
gauge line, when the gradients and curves are easy ; while the
line of Ergastiria shows, that steep gradients and sharp curves
may be used to surmount high summits. The diminution of the
load in the ascent need not prejudice the development of the traffic,
if the gradients on the other parts of the line are easy, since an
extra engine can be employed. A speed of from 18 to 22 miles
per hour round curves of 394-feet radius, and of from 9 to 12 miles
per hour round curves of 330-feet radius, may be adopted with
safety, and without involving undue wear of the tires and the road.
Including land and the building of simple stations, the cost of con-
struction need not exceed £4,000 per mile, or with £1,400 for
rolling stock, £5,400 a mile. The working expenses may be con-
siderably reduced by adopting stations only at the most important
points, and elsewhere simple stopping places for the issue of tickets
by the guard, by abolishing night traffic, and, lastly, by limiting the
speed to 22 miles per hour for passenger trains, a few only of which
should be run on the important lines, while that for mixed trains
should not exceed 12 to 16 miles an hour. This speed admits the

342 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

i^se of liglit, clieaply constructed rolling stock, in which the ratio
of the useful to the dead load is great.

The Author also describes the railways of Eochebelle, of Cessous
and Trebiau (Gard), and of St. Leon, between the bay of Madeleine,
in the gulf of Cagliari, and the iron mines of the same name.
Their details are similar to those already given, while on the
latter railway there is this peculiarity, that from St. Lucia to
Madeleine (about 6 miles) the sleepers consist of two wrought-
iron shoes with the chairs riveted to them. The shoes are \ inch
thick, 6^ inches wide, and 10 inches long, the extremities being
bent downwards at right angles. The shoes are tied together
by a steel T iron If inch in height by ^r inch thick, attached to
each T iron by a single rivet. They weigh 20i lbs. without, and
39i lbs. with the chairs, and cost 6s. 8d. each. The engines are
four-wheeled, weigh 5 tons empty, and 6h tons loaded, which gives
for the maximum load on a single chair 1|- ton. The area of
the shoe being only 62 square inches, the pressure per square
inch on the bearing surface of the ballast is 54 lbs., while on
ordinary lines it rarely exceeds 34 lbs. The T-iron tie, on ac-
count of its weak section, twists and destroys the gauge. Ordi-
nary sleepers, in addition to their greater bearing surface, assist
in keeping the road in position by their mere weight. The metal
cross-sleepers, on account of their lightness and the above defects,
have been replaced in the curves ; they will probably not be
efficient in any position.

W. D.

Locomotive Engines on Inclined Planes. By M. Le Chateliek.

(Bulletin de la Socie'te d' Encouragement, No. 1, 1874, pp. 6-18.)

The Author ^ enumerates three systems for conveying trains up
steep gradients, namely, fixed engines working endless ropes to
which the vehicles are attached; the atmospheric system.; and
haulage by locomotives. It appears that in general — setting aside
special circumstances which permit of water power being utilised
— the third system is preferable, if the first cost and the subsequent
maintenance be considered together. The object of this memoir
is not to discuss the comparative merits of the different systems,
but to point out the extent to which the last of them can be
carried, and to explain the principles which ought to govern its
application.

Under ordinary conditions, locomotives are capable of developing
great power, because their parts move at a high speed, and their

• la a footnote the editors of the " Bulletiu " state that the memoir was written
by the late M. Le Chatelier, in 1852, for the private use of his friend, M. Petin,
who had at that time been consulted by the Italian Government respecting the
construction of railways, and that the views expressed in the memoir having
been borne out by subsequent experience, it would no doubt be read with interest.

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 343

boilers, if properly proportioned, have largo stcam-prodxicing capa-
bilities. Thus the goods engines in use on the Northern Railway of
France, when running with a full load at a speed of 22i miles per
hour, develoji 000 IIP. The utmost power, however, can only he
obtained at a maximum speed, for the work done at each stroke of
the pistons remaining sensibly the same, the power is, as it were,
lependent upon the number of strokes made per minute. But in
oonstructing an engine to take a maximum lt)ad up an incline, the
iirst thing is to reduce the speed, and thus to diminish the power
• )f developing a large amount of force. It is true there are certain
countervailing advantages, but these do not compensate for the
decrease in force caused by the diminished piston speed. The
advantages are the lessening of the resistances to the movement of
the train, and the obtaining of a higher pressure of steam in the
cylinders, owing to the greater time allowed for its traversing
the passages. In this way the engine is made to exert its maxi-
mum tractive force, but the actual power developed is reduced.
If, however, the proportions of the engine are not pre-determined,
it is possible, in a certain degree, by reducing the diameter of the
wheels, to combine the slow movement of the train with a high
sjieed of pistons, thus obtaining the maximum development of power.

To augment the tractive power of a locomotive, however, it is
not merely sufficient to diminish the diameter of the driving
Avheels ; it is also necessary to increase the load upon those wheels
in the inverse ratio of their diameter. Moreover, as the load
upon the rails cannot be indefinitely augmented, it is necessary
to multiply the number of points upon which it is carried. The
■conclusion is thus arrived at that, to work steep gradients with
locomotives, the latter must have wheels of small diameter, so as
to give a high piston velocity with a low speed, the wheels must
be increased in number in proportion to the total load to be carried,
and, lastly, the cylinders which give motion to each pair or group
of wheels must have dimensions proportioned to the adhesion which
those wheels will possess.

For working steep gradients, M. Le Chatelier proposes to
•employ engines weighing from 20 to 25 tons, including their fuel
and water, to give to the wheels of these engines the smallest
possible diameter, and to reduce the speed to from 9^ to 12^ miles
per hour, preserving at the same time a rate for the driving
wheels of two to three revolutions per second. The engines should
be fitted with break shoes acting directly on the rails, and if the
nature of the line or the state of the rails require it, the trains
should be taken up by two or, if necessary, by three such locomo-
tives, placing one at the end of the train during the ascent. During
the descent the engines should be all at the head of the train, thus
replacing the special break wagons otherwise required.^

' For further information concerning the proportions of the engines he proposes,
"M. Le Chatelier refers to the " Couiptes-rcudus de la Socie'te' des Inge'nieurs
Civils." lSo'2, vol. v., p. 341.

34:4 ABSTKACTS OF PAPERS IN

The Author next considers the case of an incline of 1 in 33, up
which it is desired to take trains of twenty wagons weighing 7^ tons
each. To furnish the tractive force, it is proposed to use two
25-ton locomotives, each having 15-inch cylinders, 17-i% inches
stroke, and possessing 673 square feet of heating surface, the
boilers being loaded to a pressure of 90 lbs. per square inch. The
resistance of the whole train, including the engine, is calculated at
18,960 lbs. The consumption of these locomotives is estimated at
70*4 lbs. of coke and 493 lbs. of water per mile; while 1 ton of
coke and 4 tons of water are deemed sufScient for a run of 12^ miles.
Adding to these 5 tons the weight of the tanks and coke boxes at
say 1 ton, there would thus remain 19 tons for the net weight of
each engine, this weight corresponding fairly with the other pro-
portions. The diameter of the wheels could scarcely be less than
27^ inches, or the connecting rod ends would project below the
tread of the wheel ; each engine ought to be mounted on either two
or three pairs of wheels, according to the load the rails could carry,
and according to the nature of the line.

M. Le Chatelier allows that when gradients are worked in the
way proposed, namely, by grouping the engines at the head of the
train to regulate the descent, inconvenience may arise from
the trains in one direction not corresponding with those in the
other, thus causing the engines to run a certain distance " light " ;
but this inconvenience can be diminished by providing suitable
break power, so that the engines need not always descend the
inclines with the trains ; while the delays from this cause have an
equivalent when the atmospheric system is adopted, as the trains
must then in their ascent be divided into parts. AVith either
system the descent of the trains must take place at a slow speed.

Steeper gradients — say, for example, of 1 in 20 — could be
similarly worked hj locomotives, the wheels being reduced to
about 2 feet in diameter. If this reduction in the size of the wheel
should be objectionable on the score of the head of the connecting-
rod not clearing the ballast, the stroke must be shortened, and the
diameter of the cylinder proportionately increased. Thus modified,
two locomotives of the weight above given would take thirteen
wagons, weighing 7^ tons each, up a gradient of 1 in 20, while,
without any alterations in their dimensions, they would be cai3able
of taking ten such wagons up a gradient of 1 in 20 at a speed of
12^ miles per hour.

In the event of the atmospheric system being adopted on a
gradient of 1 in 20, the tube, if worked with a vacuum of f atmo-
sphere, would have to be 23| inches in diameter to enable five
wagons to be taken up at once, while for trains of thirteen or
fourteen wagons the diameter of the tube would have to be in-
creased to 39 • 3 inches (1 metre). It must be remembered also that
a very considerable part of the load in a train on the atmospheric
system would arise fiom the special vehicle, which would have to
be provided at the head of the train, and from the break wagon at
the rear. With the large tubes difficulties of construction and of

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 345

inaintenanco would bo out of all proportion to the amount of
traffic.

In the case of a lino destined specially for merchandise traffic,
and on which the speed can without inconvenience be reduced to
G miles per hour, M. Le Chatelier, referring to the fact that rack
rails have been used in England, and in one instance at least in
the United States, considers that such a rail laid between the
ordinary rails, and into which should gear a toothed wheel driven
by the engine, could with advantage be employed. With engines
of the general dimensions above stated, driving a pinion 13f inches
in diameter, a tractive power of 8 • 3 tons would bo developed by
each locomotive, so that one engine could take a load of thirteen
wagons up an incline of 1 in 20. For passenger traffic ho proposes
that the ordinary engines shoTild remain attached to the train, and
that a rack rail engine should be employed as a bank engine, and
placed at the rear of an ascending or at the head of a descending
train. In the latter position it would form a perfect break. Such
an engine should be fitted with small auxiliary cylinders, acting on
the ordinary wheels, so as to enable it to be readily moved about
on those parts of the line where the rack rail is not laid down.

M. Le Chatelier remarks that the principles he has enunciated
do not appear to have been understood by the engineers who settled
the terms of the Semmering competition, nor by the constructors
who furnished the engines ; the locomotive ' Bavaria ' and its rivals
having been made with wheels of too great diameter, and the whole
of the working gear having to be proportionately heavy in conse-
quence. The ' Bavaria ' possesses less tractive power than a pair of
such engines as have been described, although weighing half as
much again. The two engines could be coupled back to back, and
driven by one engine driver, one assistant driver, and one fireman.

As regards cost of working, the Author states that in 1857 the
expense of locomotive traction on French railways was given by

the formula P = 0*475 -|- , o,^» in which P is the cost in francs per

kilometre, and F the price of coke in francs j^er ton.^ Considering
that in the case of the engines proposed, for working heavy gradients,
the wheels will make twice as many revolutions per mile as those
of ordinary engines, M. Le Chatelier assumes their working expenses
to be double, and, with coke costing 40s. per ton, he calculates
the expenses at 32c?. per mile, or a maximum of 40d. per mile,
including interest on the cost of the engines, and the exceptional
repairs which bank locomotives require when working under
unfavourable conditions.

Altogether, M. Le Chatelier considers that whatever system is
ultimately adopted for working a mountain railway, locomotive
haulage should first be tried. The locomotives thus provided arc

' If P be taken as the cost in pence per mile and F the price of coke in shillings

per ton, the expression becomes P = 7*0 H — .

5'2<

346 ABSTRACTS OF PAPEKS IN

useful during the formation of the line ; they will serve for carrying
on the traffic in the event of any stoppage of the stationary engines,
supposing these to be ultimately provided; while, besides this,
when not required on the mountain section, they can be turned to
useful account on other parts of the line. For the traffic over a
line between Modane and Susa (with a tunnel throxigh the Mont
Cenis), as laid out by the Chevalier Maus, with gradients varying
from 1 in 100 to 1 in 28^, over a length of 22i miles, and a gra-
dient of 1 in 62 • 6 for a length of 7^ miles in the great tunnel, it is
considered by M. Le Chatelier that three passenger trains and four
goods trains each way per day will suffice, and that these trains could
be so arranged that in the case of only one of the passenger trains
each way per day would it be necessary to run a "light" engine over
the line. For working such traffic the locomotive expenses are
calculated by M. Le Chatelier at £33,490 per annum, and it is con-
.sidered that the work could be done by twenty-four locomotives, of
which the cost is estimated at £50,000. If the line were worked
by fixed engines and ropes on M. Maus's system, ten fixed engines,
costing with the ropes £20,000 each, would be required, while the
cost of maintenance of the cables is estimated at £320 per mile per
annum, and the cost of repairs of engines, enginemen's and breaks-
men's wages, (fee, at £1,600 to £2,000 per annum. If to these
expenses be added the interest on the capital expended on fixed
plant, it will be seen on which side the advantage lies, even if the
fixed engines be worked by water, and the motive power be thus
furnished gratuitously. The atmospheric system being even more
costly, has a still more doubtful application.

In conclusion, M. Le Chatelier considers the Piedmontese Govern-
ment should build a pair of locomotives of moderate weight, with
very small wheels, such as he has recommended, and also give
•a fair trial to the railway with a rack.

W. H. M.

Common Error in ascertainmg Locomotive Adliesion availalle
for the Traction of Trains.

By J. MOSCHELL, Engineer in Chief of the District Eailway of the Jura.
(Annales du Ge'nie Civil, March 1874-, jip. 145-1-49.)

The Author states that ordinarily, after having determined
the total tractive force which can be produced by the adhesion
of any particular locomotive on the rails, engineers deduct
therefrom a certain proportion, as being required for the loco-
motive itself, and treat the residue only as available for over-
coming the resistance of the tender and of the other parts of the
train. The Author is of opinion that engineers make this deduc-
tion on the basis that the friction between the wheels and the
rails has to overcome the resistance of all the moving parts of the

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 347

ongiuc, and he enters into elaborate arguments with illustrations
to show, that it is the steam which has to overcome this resistance,
and that the adhesion of the engine is not called upon to play any
part in tlio matter.

Further, he "directs attention to the fact that by coupling a
second pair of wheels in a locomotive, so as to turn them into
drivers, not onl}'- is the adhesion available for traction increased
by the effect of the weight upon the other pair of driving wheels
thus brought into play, but that the adhesion formerly employed
to overcome the journal friction of these wheels is no longer neces-
sary. By assuming a proportion between the diameter of the
wheel and that of the journal of 7 to 1, and a load of 10 tons upon
the pair of wheels, with a friction on the journals of i^^, he proves
that 160 lbs. out of the whole adhesion, required to overcome
the friction of the journals, are now set at liberty for the purpose
of assisting in drawing the train ; and he attributes to this fact
the explanation of a matter observed by M. Flachat, viz., that
the adhesion of two pairs of coupled wheels was a greater per-
centage of the insistent weight than that afforded by the adhesion
when one pair of driving wheels only was employed. M. Flachat
exj^lained this discrepancy by assuming that the wheels were not
truly of the same diameter, and that thus there was a slight
grinding action which increased the adhesion. The Author, how-
ever, believes that he has found the solution in dispensing with
the journal friction of the one pair of wheels.

Locomotive luitJwut Fire. By M. S. Pichault.

(Annales Industrielles, June 1-i, 1874.)

Among the applications of mechanical force to the traction of
vehicles on tramway's or roads, a tireless locomotive has been
employed by INIr. Lamm on the New Orleans tramway, since the
spring of 1872, to which he gives the name of thermospecific
engine. It consists of an ordinary steam-engine mounted on the
tramcar, or on a separate truck, with a boiler having no furnace,
antl therefore smokeless and less liable to explode. This locomotive
is supplied with water from certain stationary boilers along the
route, heated to a temperature corresponding to 12 or more atmo-
spheres of steam pressui'e. As this heated water gives off steam
to the engine, its temperature, and the corresponding pressure of
the steam, continually diminish, until a new station is reached
and a fresh supply of hot water taken in. In order to judge of
the quantity of work Avhich such a boiler can give out, the Author
obtains from the principles of thermodynamics : —

T = 90,000 V (^0 - ^i) in French units
= 10,000 V {ta - ^ J in English units.

348 ABSTKACTS OF PAPERS IN

V being tlie capacity of the boiler in cubic metres or feet ;

T, the work produced during the falling of the pressure in kilo-
grammetres or foot-pounds ;

{q and ty, the initial and the final temperatures in degrees centi-
grade or Fahrenheit.

Modified, to allow for losses by radiation, conduction, leakage,
etc., the formula is given as

T u = 22,500 V (^0 - ^i) in French units
= 2,500 V (Iq — Q in English units.

As an application of the above, let ?o = 190^ cent, or 374° Fahr.,
which corresponds to a pressure of 1 1 atmospheres, and ^^ = 153'^
cent, or 307° '4 Fahr., which corresponds to 4 atmospheres, then

T M = 22,500 V X 37 = 830,000 V,
orTM= 2,500V X 66-6 = 166,500V.

That is to say, each cubic metre of water under these conditions
can furnish 830,000 kilogrammetres of work, or each cubic foot
can furnish 166,500 foot-pounds. If the journey lasts for an hour,
this is equivalent to about 0-08 HP. (English^ per cubic foot, or
about 3 HP. (French) per cubic metre of water. The experiments
at New Orleans are examined in the original Paper by this
formula, and are found to agree with it.

Though the application of this source of power is comparatively
easy on tramways, it is less so on railways, because a boiler, large
enough to hold the water usually carried by a locomotive and
tender, would scarcely contain sufficient to produce a motive power
of 60 HP. (French); while ordinary locomotives attain almost
600 HP. To diminish the size of the boiler, the distance between
the replenishing stations may be shortened ; but there will remain
the inconveniences inherent to the variation of pressure within
great limits, and to the variation of adhesion.

For the Aveight of steam [x, formed while the temperature passes
from tg to ^1, the Aiithor obtains the formula : —

^„„^, 0-7882 (L - t,) . ^ T

u = 62-5 V X 1:7882 (^o-g English units.

^ 1036 -0-7882 (t^ - 32) ='

Adopting the same temperatures as before, /x. = 64 V or 4 V. That
is to say, each cubic metre of water has given off" 64 kilogrammes
of steam ; or each cubic foot has given off 4 lbs., or about one-
fifteenth of its weight. The number of thermal units to be
taken from a stationary boiler, to lecharge the locomotive when
the temperature has fallen from 190' centigrade to 153° cen-
tigrade by giving oif steam, is the difference of thermal units in
the boiler under these two conditions of temperature. It must be

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 349

remembered that, besides the fall of temperature, 64 kilogrammes
of water in the form of steam have been abstracted per cubic metre.
It is sliown in the original Paper that about 48,000 French
tliermal xxnits have to be supplied per ciibic metre of capacity of
the thermospecific boiler, or 5,270 English thermal units per cubic
foot.

Tlie restoration of lost thermal units is eflfected in practice by
connecting the stationary and locomotive boilers, and allowing
the heat to pass from one to the other, taking care to have a proper
arrangement of level between them, and to have the stationary
boiler much lai'ger than the locomotive boiler, as the temperature
of the former will otherwise be considerably lowered by the
abstraction of so much heat.

It is calculated, in the original Paper, that if compressed air
be stored wp instead of hot water, each cubic metre of compressed
air between 11 and 4 atmospheres of pressure can only give out
24,500 kilogrammetres of work ; while, as shown above, each cubic
metre of water gives out 830,000 kilogrammetres, or thirty-eight
times as much. With fifteen thermospecific engines an economy
was effected of 50 per cent, over the use of horses.

S. D.

On the Tendency of the Beversing Lever of Locomotives to " return
sucldenlij" when being imUed over. By A. Balguerie.

(Bulletin de la Soci^te d'Encouragement, Feb. 1874, pp. 73-85, 1 pi.)

Eeferring to the well-known tendency of the reversing lever
of a locomotive, when disengaged, to fly into full gear, more par-
ticularly when the engine is reversed with full steam on,^ M. Bal-
guerie investigates the reaction caused by the obliquity of the
link with respect to the valve-si^indle, as the cause of such tendency,
and calculates approximately the force with which the reversing
lever is urged to move. He selects for investigation the valve-
gear, or ' distribution,' of three classes of locomotives on the
Midi railway, fitted respectively with Stephenson's link, Gooch's
link, and Allan's link. These are well-known types, of which, in
the fir.st, the expansion-link is shifted vertically, whilst the valve-
block is maintained in a fixed centre-line ; in the second, the link
is suspended from a fixed point, or is stationary, whilst the valve-
rod link is shifted vertically ; and in the third, both the expansion-
link and the valve-rod sling are shifted vertically, in contrary
directions, being suspended from the ends of a double lever worked
by the reversing handle. M. Balguerie assumes, for simplicity, that

' This relates to the practice on many contiuental lines of reversing the engine
with full steam on, to obtain, on the Le Chatelier ' contre-vapeur ' system, the
arresting of the motion of the train. To absorb the heat developed in the
cylinders by this reversal an injection of water is provided. — Sec. Inst. C.E.

350 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

the chord of the arc of the expansion-liuk may be substituted for
the arc ; and, putting a for the angle of inclination of the chord
with a line perpendicular to the centre-line of the valve- spindle,
and R for the resistance of the valve to be moved, the component
of this force tending to displace the slide-block in the link, is
equal to R sin a. On the basis of Zeuner's formulae, the Author,
beginning with an example of the Stephenson link, calculates the
values of E sin a, for fourteen points in the circular path of the
crank, at equal intervals, commencing at the dead point of the
crank, and on the supposition that the expansion-link is placed
nearly in full gear, as follows : —

Angle of

crank with

Value of

crank with

Value of

le (lead point.

R sin a.

the dead point.

R sin a.

o t
0 0

0-02465 R

O 1

210 0

- 0-1821 R

30 0
52 35

-0-1909 R
T 0-3336 e|

(change
of sign.)

232 35
240 0

0-3433 R

60 0

0-3521 R

270 0

0-4157 R

90 0

0-4157 R

300 0

0-3679 R

120 0

0-3679 R

330 0

0-2247 R

150 0

0-2247 R

360 0

0-0246 R

180 0

0-0246 R

From this table it appears that the value of R sin a is generally
positive : that is, it tends to drive the slide-block to the end of the
link ; but about the angles 30'' and 210'^ the force is, for very short
iiitervals, exerted in the contrary direction.

The above deductions apply to one link and valve-motion ; for
two, the efforts are so combined that the maximum united force
to be opposed by the reversing lever takes place at the angle
48° 27', and amounts to 0*5889 R. The Author estimates from
these data that, when the working surfaces are in good condi-
tion, the oblique action of the slide-blocks jDroduces a maximum
force of about 1,100 lbs. (500 kilogrammes), which is equivalent to
a resistance of from 20 lbs. to 22 lbs. (9 to 10 kilogrammes) at the
handle of the reversing lever, the amount of which may at times
be much increased : — for instance, when the engine is reversed with
steam on and without the injection of water, extra resistance is
caused by the slide-valve faces heating and gripping.

Proceeding with examples of the Gooch link and the Allan link,
the Author summarises the results of his inquiry thus : —

Angle
of crank.

Maximum
united disturbing
force, at the slide
block. .

O 1

48 27

49 5
48 3

0-5889 R
0-5318 R
0-5542 R

Stephenson link .

Gooch link

Allan link

In these three examples the angles of the eccentrics with the
centre lines of the cylinders are nearly the same, 30° and 33°. In

FOREIGN TKANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS.

351

another class of locomotive fitted with the Steplienson link, the
eccentrics arc keyed at an angle of 10° 30', the reversing lever
can be managed without the slightest difficulty, and the maximum
deranging force is only 0-3932 K, or from 440 His. to 560 lbs. (200
to 250 kilogrammes). Now these engines are fitted with two coun-
terweights, on the reversing shaft, of 330 lbs. each (150 kilo-
grammes), or together 660 lbs. (300 kilogrammes). From this
total weight is to be deducted 110 lbs. to 130 lbs. (50 to 60 kilo-
gi-ammesj for balancing the weight of the expansion-link, &c. ;
and the remainder is just sufiicient to counteract the oblique action
on the slide-blocks. Hence the facility with which the reversing
gear is managed. There is the objection, however, that in back-
ward gear the counterweights add to the labour of working the
reversing lever, instead of diminishing it.

The Author concludes that the counterweights of locomotives,
as usually proportioned, may be beneficially augmented, with a

view to facilitate the working of the reversing lever.

D. K. C.

Breakage of Tires on the Moscow-Nishni Bailivay during the

Winter of lSll-12.

(Journal of the ^Ministry of Ways and Communications, St. Petersburg, Dec. 1873.)

The following niimber of steel tires broke between the 29th of
November, 1871, and the 10th of April, 1872: — Passenger engine
tires, 5; goods engine, 22; -Render, 9; passenger carriage, 10;
goods wagon, 14; total, 60.

These had been made by the following manufacturers : —
Krupp's Steelworks, Essen, 23 ; the Obuchof Steelworks, St.
Petersburg, 14; Vickers and Co., Sheffield, 12; the Bochum
Steelworks, Westphalia, 8 ; John Brown and Co., Sheffield, 3.

The percentage on the total numbers in use and bought from the
above works was —

Kainc

Engines. i Tenders.

Carriages and Wagons.

Total.

^\■orks.

Total.

Bro-
ken.

Per
Cent.

Total.

Bro- Per
ken. Cent.

Total.

Bro-
ken.

Per
Cent.

Total.

Bro-
ken.

Per
Cent.

^'icker3 .
J. Brown
Obuchof
Bochum
Knipp .

231

• ■

82
491

••

1-9

4-8
2-24

97
471

• •

1
7

2-14

• •

1-0
1-5

1,662

2,170

3,418

537

176

3
14

2
5

0-07 1,987
0-14 2,170
0-35 ' 3,418
0-36 1,116
30 1,138

12 0-66
•3 0-14

14 0-35
7 0-63

23 2-11

The number of breakages, according to the months in which

352 ABSTKACTS OF PAPERS IN

they occurred, was — Novem"bei', 1 ; December, 3 ; January, 32 ;
February, 19 ; March, 5.

They had run the following average number of English miles
before breaking: — Bochum, 51,066; Krupp, 3-l:,666; Vickers, 28,266 ;
Obuchof, 27,066: J. Brown, 13,134.

The tires were turned inside before being put on the wheels at
the Kovrof repairing shops belonging to the railway company, and
their diameter when cold was, according to Krupp's rule, -Ynu'S
smaller than the diameter of the wheel, say l- to 1 millimetre. They
were heated to a dark brown colour, when their diameter was in-
creased 7 to 12 millimetres, after which they were put on the wheels.
The wagon tires were immersed in cold water ; but the engine tires
were cooled gradually, by pouring the water over them. The fur-
naces were of a square section, and observations showed that the
tires were not heated uniformly over their whole circumference.

The breakage is assigned to the following causes : —

1. The strain on the tire from excessive contraction in cooling.
The fracture is necessarily in the direction of the radius, and
mostly along the bolt-holes if the metal is of uniform quality ; any
other direction shows that the metal is not uniform throughout.
2. Bad quality of the metal, as proved by a coarse-grained fracture,
lacking uniformity. 3. The bolt-holes, particularly of connter-
sunk bolts, are a great source of weakness. 4. Sometimes either
the wheel or the tire is not turned exactly true, which causes un-
equal strains after it is placed on the wheel. If an iron tire is
welded, when once broken it is scarcely possible to turn it true,
and sometimes pieces of thin sheet-iron are placed between the
tire and the wheel. The unequal tightening up of the bolts
may injure the strength of the tire. 5. In a square furnace those
parts of the tire nearest the sides are subject to greater heat
than those opposite the corners, and when the tire contracts, the
former are of course strained more than the latter. 6. Severe cold,
below 10° Fahr., evidently has a marked effect upon hard steel
and iron containing impurities, by considerably reducing their
tensile strength. The frost not only increases the hardness of
the road, but makes it uneven. It is a well-known fact that a
clayey subsoil bulges out in cold weather. On the other hand,
the carriage springs partly lose their elasticity. These combined
causes produce severe shocks, which take effect upon a metal
that has lost part of its strength, and the results are shown in
the breakages per month. In January there are 52 per cent, of the
whole number, against 31 per cent, in February. The frost affects
steel more than iron. Eleven steel rails broke in a distance of
4 miles, while only twenty iron rails of middling quality broke
in 100 miles, and none in 166 miles laid with Siberian rails, of
which the metal is very pure and soft. 7. It is impossible to
make the six coupled wheels of a goods engine of exactly the
same diameter ; and even if this were possible, they would wear
differently in proportion to the weight ui^on them. The middle
and trailing wheels will slip more than the leading wheels, and

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 353

in curves the slip will bo greater still. The strain of this sliding
friction ujDon the tires, particularly in cold weather, may cause
breakage. On the Nishni railway twenty tires of goods engines
broke, of which seven belonged to leading, five to middle, and
eight to trailing wheels. In passenger engines, where only two
pairs of wheels are connected, this friction is much smaller, and
therefore causes fewer breakages. Only five tires of passenger
engines broke — four on the middle, and one on a trailing wheel.
The destructive effects of sliding friction in cold weather can
also be traced on tender tires. One half of the break power, with
the lasual arrangement, acts upon the hind wheels, while the
other half is expended on the middle and fore wheels ; conse-
quently the strain on the] former is not only severer, but they also
wear more quickly and show more places worn flat. Of ten broken
tender tires five belonged to the hind wheels, three to the middle,
and two to the fore wheels.

No breakages occurred on wheels of Mansell's pattern, owing,
probably, to the softness and elasticity of the body of the wheel,
which consisted of wood. Besides, the tires are fastened to the
rim, not by bolts, but by rings on both sides, by which means
the weakening effects of bolt-holes are avoided. If a breakage
should nevertheless occur, the separate pieces of the tire would
be held in place by the rings. Only in eighteen cases out of sixty-
one could an opinion be formed of the fractures of the broken
tires, because they were mostly rusted. Judging from the frac-
tures, it is believed in eight cases the cause of breakage was bad
metal ; in seven cases, excessive strain in putting on the tires ;
and in three cases, indifferent quality of metal combined with
too great wear. Fourteen tires were broken through the bolt-hole,
and three through the screw-hole, the tires being fastened to the
rim by screws from the inside of the rim.

The use of tires having a considerable degree of hardness (as
from the works of Bochum, Krupp, and Vickers) is rather detri-
mental to iron rails ; and it is probable that the saving derived
from their longer endurance entails a heavier expense in the
renewal of rails. The hardness of the tires therefore ought to be
made dependent upon the hardness of the metal used for the rails.
Iron tires injure the rails less, and are less liable to suffer from
excessive strains, their metal being tougher, and admitting of a
higher degree of elongation before rupture actxially takes place.

On the Nishni line the tires are turned whenever the most worn
places attain a depth below a true circle of 4 — 5 millimetres.

C. G. K.

[1874-75. N.S.] 2 A

354 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

On measiires for liroteding Railways from Snow, as adopted on
American and Eii^ropean Lines. By Ernest Pontzen.

(Zeitschrift des Oest. Ing. und Arch. Vereins, No. 8, 1874, pp. 131-137, 3 pi.)

To escape the effects of a rigorous climate long deviations and
tunnels at a lower level have frequently been made. But the
highest regions are not always the most exposed to ohstructions
from snow, which are caused either through drifts or avalanches.
The railways over the Semmering Pass; 2,892 feet (881-5 metres)
above sea level, and over the Brenner Pass, 4,485 feet (1,367 metres),
suffer little; whereas on the Parndorf Heath, 590 feet (180 metres)
above the sea, on the Marchfeld, 492 feet (150 metres), and on
the Wiener-Neustadt Plain, 919 feet (280 metres), frequent inter-
ruptions in the traffic occur from the drifting of snow. The
railway over the Karst (Carso), 1,968 feet (600 metres) above the
sea, is one of those lines of Central Europe most exposed to
snowdrifts. Avalanches are easier to deal with, for the spots
where they occur are known, and the line can generally be kept
out of their reach.

In projecting a railway exposed to such contingencies, cuttings
must be avoided ; and even the snow from low embankments,
when repeatedly swept by the plough, soon gets heaped upon both
sides, and the conditions of a cutting are reproduced and cause
drifting. This has been experienced on the Union Pacific rail-
way, where the embankment was subsequently raised 3 feet for
about 30 miles. Where cuttings are necessary, the usual protec-
tive works consist of fences, walls, or banks parallel to the line on
the side of the prevailing winds.

The first things to be considei'ed are the configuration of the
country and the direction of the prevailing wind. The latter,
however, as well as the angle at which it strikes the ground, may
vary so much as to render it difficult to decide on what side of the
line the works shall be erected. It may often appear advisable to
have them on both sides, in which case other means are to be pre-
ferred. If the direction of the wind is pretty constant the problem
is easy. When an obstacle is presented to driving snow, prisms
are deposited before and behind it, the length of the one behind
being sometimes five times the height of the obstacle, and the
distance from the top of the cutting at which a fence or wall
should be erected has to be calculated accordingly.

On the Karst railway, upright wooden fences and stone walls,
with a minimum height of 16 feet 5 inches (5 metres), were erected.
On the Parndorf Heath, a bank 6 j feet (2 metres) high was thrown
up parallel to the railway. The fence adopted on the Pacific rail-
way leans towards the line, but the upper part is inclined in a
reverse direction, so as to divert the currents of wind upwards, and
thereby to shelter a much wider strip of ground. The planks,
moreover, are placed so much apart, that the wind blows between

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 355

"them and prevents any great deposition of snow on either side.
The fences are made in lengths of 16 to 20 feet, and can bo
removed when they obstruct cultivation, while they are sometimes
sot up in parallel rows, to prevent not only drifting of snow, but
the rolling of largo masses on to the line.

Fences or walls, when used on both sides of the line, must bo
carried up to a considerable height, as they are only serviceable so
long as there is room for the snow to be deposited on both sides.
Shelter against storms varying in direction, and against ' Schnee-
wirbel,' or ' tourmentes,' so frequent in the mountains, is best
provided in the form of roofs or galleries.

On the (temporary) railway over Mont Cenis, constructed on the
Fell system, lengths of 4,484 yards (4,100 metres) at the summit,
of 3,390 yards (3,100 metres) between Grand Croix and St. Martin,
and at various other places, making together a total of 15i miles
(25 kilometres), were covered. These galleries, with the exception
of those spots where avalanches had to be guarded against, con-
sisted of timber framing, boarded in. They had a clear height
over the line of 12 feet 4 inches (3*75 metres), and could bear
the weight of 20 feet of snow. Some of the roofing was of cor-
rugated iron. Ventilation was provided for by longitudinal
openings at the top, or spaces were left between the boards at the
sides, but, owing to the small height of the gallery, the air was
very bad.

The Pacific railway is provided with 43^ miles (70 kilometres)
of snow galleries, of which the greater part is on the Central
Pacific, the Union Pacific being sheltered chiefly by fences. In
spite of the greater inclemency of climate of the Sierra Nevada
no interruption to the traffic occurred, even for a day, from
this cause during the winter of 1872-73 ; whereas, during the
same period, the traffic of the Union Pacific was stopped for
several weeks. The galleries have pi'oved a perfect success. In
the winter of 1866-67, during which time the works on the Pacific
railway were in progress, observations were made on the snowfall
by the Engineer, Mr. John K. Gilliss,^ the results of which subse-
quently appeared in a report to the American Society of Civil
Engineers. From November to June snow fell on forty-four days.
The total depth was 44 feet 8 inches (13*6 metres), the average
depth on the ground during the eight months being 7 feet ^ inch
(2-3 metres). The pressure of the wind during the snowstorms
reached 10 lbs. per square foot, while the lowest temperature during
the winter was 5^° Fahr. The snow galleries are entirely of
timber, and have an internal height of 23 feet 3^ inches
(7-10 metres). Along the ridge of the roof there are numerous
small ventilating towers, provided with louvre windows. The
boarding of the sides of the gallery is, about the middle of its
height, carried a short way down the inclined struts, while the

» Vide " American Society of Civil Engineers. Transactions," vol. i. (1872), pp.

2 A 2

356 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

lower and perpendicular boarding ends at a short distance fronis
the ground, whereby perfect ventilation is secured. During the
summer, lengths of the boarding can be removed to let in light
and air. To prevent fires, which have been very destructive, the
roofs are being lined with corrugated iron, and steam fire-engines
on trollies are kept in readiness at every station.

At those parts of the Mont Cenis railway, along the steep sides.
of the mountain liable to avalanches, the line was arched over.
The covered ways had a width of 13 feet 1^ inch (4 metres), and
a thickness at the crown of 23^ inches (60 centimetres), the angle
between the arch and the mountain slopes being filled in with a
backing of earth and stone. Similar arches, with openings at in-
tervals on the valley side to admit light and air, have existed
for some time on the road over the St. Gothard Pass and elsewhere.

On the Pacific line the sloping roof of the galleries abutted
against the side of the mountain at a steep angle. The venti-
lation of such galleries is better than that of masonry arches, as-
they inclose a larger volume of air, and they were undoubtedly,
in the case mentioned, erected more quickly and at much less,
cost than the arched covered ways of the Mont Cenis line. On
European mountain lines, where a sxipply of timber is always
at hand, a consideration of the relative advantages of a cheap
or a durable structure will probably lead to the use of timber.

By the adoption of the means described, snowdrifts and ava-
lanches need cause no great interruption of traffic ; and the long-
and expensive tunnels, to avoid the higher regions and escape?
snowstorms, may be considered for the future as unnecessary.

H. D.

The Financial Statistics of Eur oi^ean Bail icaijs from 1855 to 1873.

By Dr. G. St-Ormer, Director of the Kealscliule at Bromberg.

(Zeitung des Vereins Deut. Eisenbahnverwaltungen, Nos. 42 & 47, 1874.)

The Author gives, in a tabular form, particulars of the number of
miles open, cost of construction, receipts, expenses, percentage of
expenses as compared with receipts, profits per mile and percentage
of profit on outlay ; but the returns are not in all cases complete-
for the period named.

In the Empire of Germany there were, at the end of 1872^
14,077 miles open, the average cost of construction having been
£18,233 per mile. The net revenue was 52 • 2 per cent, of the gross
receipts, whilst the profits on outlay amounted to 6 • 6 per cent.
The most remarkable feature of the German returns is the great
increase in the receipts per mile, which have nearly doubled during
the period indicated. With regard to the Austrian railways, which
embraced a total length of 8,734 miles at the end of 1872, the average-
cost of construction was £20.512 per mile, and the profits showed a
gradual decrease from 9'8 per cent, in 18G8 to 6 per cent, in 1872>

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 357

This, however, is accounted for by the recent addition of a largo
number of new lines, the traffic on which has not, as yet, been fully
developed. Great Britain had 15,813 miles open at the end of
1872, the average cost of construction being £35,984 per mile, as
compared with £35,703 in 1855, or nearly double that of the
German lines. The receipts per mile exhibited a steady increase
from 1855, a slight falling-oflf being noticeable in 1869 and 1870 ;
ibut as the Author points out, the rise was not nearly so rapid as on
the German railways. The complete French returns do not come
later than the year 1869; but the total length of lines open at
the end of 1873 amounted to 11,538 miles (besides 700 miles of
local railways), the average receipts being £2,697 per mile. The
Belgian railways had at the end of 1872 an extent of 962 miles
only, the average cost of construction being apparently higher
than in Great Britain ; but this is due to the manner in which the
returns are made out, the charges for maintenance and renewal
being added year by year to the original cost. The profit on
capital reached 8 • 1 per cent. The Dutch railways are remarkable
for the smallness of the receipts, which are about one-third those of
the German lines. Taking the Central railway of Switzerland as
a representative line for that country, the receipts and profits show
a very marked increase. In Sweden the receipts per mile are very
small ; but in consequence of the low cost of construction the
railways yielded a return of 6 • 3 per cent, on the private lines, and
of 3 • 3 per cent, on the State lines. The Eussian statistics are very
imperfect ; but it appears that at the end of 1873, 10,140 miles
were open. The cost of constructing the 8,670 miles open in
1871 was £21,846 per mile, the receipts being £2,098 per mile
during that year. Taking the whole of the European railways, the
receipts during the year 1873 approached £2,438 per mile; the
working expenses were about half the gross receipts ; whilst the
returns on capital were between 5 and 6 per cent. For purposes
of comparison the Author gives some particulars of the United
States railways. At the end of 1873 there were 71,569 miles open,
the cost of construction being £11,314 per mile, calculated on the
returns from 54,000 miles only, particulars of the remainder not
being obtainable. The dividend on capital of the entire American
railway system reached 6 • 1 per cent.

E. B. P.

The Hanoverian Machine Company's Works at Linden.

By Herr Eichard, Assistant at the Polytechnic of Hanover.

(Zeitschrift des Arch. u. Ing. Vereins, Hannover, xx., Mo. 1, 1874- ; cols. 63-76, 4 pi.)

The machine manufactory at Linden was established in the year
1840 by George Egestorfi", one of the industrial pioneers of Hanover.
Towai'ds the end of 1868 the works wei'e purchased by Dr. Strous-
.berg of Berlin, and in 1870 they became the property of a joint-

358 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

stock company called " The Hanoverian Machine Works Company.'"
They comprise an iron-foundry capable of turning out from 3,440
to 3,981 tons (3^ to 4 million kilos.) per annum ; turnery and
fitting-shops ; erecting shops sufficiently spacious to allow of the
simultaneous erection of thirty-six locomotives and twenty-four
tenders ; boiler- shops, capable of producing from twenty to twenty-
two locomotive boilers and a similar number of tenders per month ;
wheel- works which supply wheels for two hundred locomotives and
tenders per annum ; smiths' shops and steam-hammer sheds ; brass-
foundry, coppersmiths' workshop, &c. The works have railway
communication with the Hanover and Altenbeken Line at Linden
Station, and they cover a total area of nearly 50 acres (19 '7 hec-
tares). The motive power is supplied by sixteen steam-engines
of a united force of 350 HP. There are sixteen steam-hammers
and twenty-six boilers, about one hundred and ninety smiths' forges,
and thirty -four furnaces of various kinds. Two locomotives are kept
in constant employment in the works, and the number of machine
tools is about eight hundred. Three thousand two hundred
workmen and two hundred and fifty clerks and superintendents
are employed. At the present moment the establishment is capable
of turning out from two hundred to two hundred and fifty loco-
motives per anniim, in addition to which machinery of the annual
value of from £30,000 to £42,500 (200,000 to 300,000 thalers) is
produced. The manufacture of locomotives, which was com-
menced in the year 1846, has increased of late years with great
rapidity. The hundredth locomotive was made in 1856 ; No. 200
was delivered in 1862, and No. 300 in 1868 ; whilst during the
months of March-June 1873, no less than one hundred were manu-
factured; bringing up the total number made since the com-
mencement in 1846 to one thousand. Under the name of " Bis-
marck " No. 1,000 was shown at the Vienna Exhibition. The
majority of the locomotives were for Germany, but ninety have
been sent to Eussia, fifty to Turkey, seventy-five to Eoumania,
forty-five to Austria and Hungary, and a few to Spain, Holland^
and other countries. The railway within the works is about 4 • 3-4
miles (7,000 metres) in extent, and its course is laid down on the
plans of the workshops which accompany the memoir. The work-
shops are principally warmed by steam, in some cases taken direct
from the boilers, while in others the waste steam is utilised. In
some of the shops the steam circulates through the hollow columns-
which support the roof, but in others coils are used. The water-
supply is obtained from the river Ihme, the necessary works having,
been constructed jointly by the company and two neighbouring
factories. The reservoir is situated at a height of 88 feet
(27 metres) above the level of the works ; the quantity consumed
by each establishment being measured by meters. There are, in
addition, several elevated reservoirs in different parts of the
works which are always kept full, to form a reserve, and are
fitted with a self-acting arrangement of valves, so as to discharge
the water into the supply -pipes whenever the pumping apparatus >

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 359

stops or the supply in the elevated reservoir fails. The workmen's
dwellings, which occupy an area of about 7 "8 acres (31,500 square
metres), form a striking feature of the establishment, the number of
inhabitants being about three thousand, including the workmen's
families. The remainder of the memoir is occupied by a descrip-
tion of the arrangement of the smiths' shops, turnery, and grinding
apparatus. Details of the works, of the machinery employed, and
of the diflferent apparatus are given in the drawings which accom-
pany the Paper.

K. B. P.

Experiments on the Laws of Filtration. By Paul Havrez.

(Revue Universelle des Mines, May-June 1874, pp. 469-551, 3 pi.)

The Author's investigations as to the rapidity of filtration of
water through sand, wool, &c., resulted in ascertaining and
measuring the influences which may modify the flow of water.
The influences which are exerted in all cases of filtration are : the
pressure and temperature of the water, the thickness of the filtering
medium, compression in the case of fibrous filters, and the size of
the grains and their mixture in the case of a filtering medium
analogous to sand. The influence of obstructions due to the dirti-
ness of the filter depends on circumstances too variable to be taken
into account. The delivery of a filter per square metre per twenty-
four hours is equal to 2 cubic metres multiplied by the pressure of
water in metres, divided by the thickness of the filtering medium in
metres. An application of this formula is made to existing filter
beds, including those at Southwark and at Chelsea.

The first experiments, for ascertaining the influence of a head of
water on the delivery, led to the following results : — The delivery
increases in a higher ratio than the square root of the pressure due
to the height (Torricelli's law) ; the delivery increases in direct ratio
to the height of the column of water above the filter, admitting a
previous initial delivery due solely to the pressure of the water
held by the filtering substance itself; for every increment of
5 'SIS inches (135 millimetres) of height in the column of water
above the filter, the co-efficient of the increase of delivery is con-
stant, and in the case of a filtering substance 8*662 inches (22 cen-
timetres) thick, is equal to 0*106 pint (6 centilitres) for sand, to
0*528 pint (30 centilitres) for compressed wool, and to 0*792 pint
(45 centilitres) for wool only slightly compressed.

The subsequent experiments were made with graduated trans-
parent glass cylinders, 3*28 feet (1 metre) high, with the ends
perfectly level, the filtering substances being kept in place by a
thick double cloth tied tightly under the bottom of the tube. This
apparatus presented no other obstacle to the running of the water
than the layer of filtering substance; it permitted experiments
to be made at all temperatures, and the thickness of the filtering
medium to be measured exactly.

o60 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

In these experiments, sand is taken as the type of pulverulent
substances ; but an unexpected difficult}^ was encountered in the
settling or partial agglomeration of the large and small grains
of the unsifted sand, thus diminishing the delivery of water to
one-half, one-third, and ultimately to one-fifth of its previous
volume. This led to the adoption of sand the grains of which were
uniform in size, and to the discovery of the fact that, other things
being equal, the resistance to filtration is constant when the sand
is coarse, when the grains of fine sand are nearly of equal size,
and when there is but little fine sand mixed with the coarse.
From experiments in filtering through a layer of coarse sand,
approximately 4 inches (10 centimetres) thick, it Avas found that the
higher the temperature, the more rapid was the delivery ; and by
filtering through a layer of coarse sand, 11 • 8 inches (30 centimetres)
thick, the conclusion was arrived at that the temperature exerts an
influence in proportion to the thickness of the layer. The Author
then demonstrates the general law for all thicknesses of coarse sand,

V = 2-5E-f(0-4-[-0-06E)^-f-

l+|+(0.05H-^?),

when V = speed of water through the filter in millimetres j)er
minute ;
E = thickness of the filtering substance in decimetres ;
t = temperature in degrees centigrade ;
and H = height in decimetres of water above the filtering

medium ;
find he draws a comparison between the formula? obtained with
layers of coarse sand of dififerent thicknesses at a temperature of
167°Fahr. (75° cent.), and also of 50° Fahr. (10° cent). He com-
pares the delivery of water at the extreme temperature of
32° Fahr. (zero centigrade) and 212° Fahr. (100° cent.), and comes
to the conclusion that the delivery at 100° cent, is six times that
at zero centigrade.

Sand, the grains of which had a mean diameter of 0-08 milli-
metre, and which coiild pass through fine silk, was next used in
layers of, approximately, 2 inches (5 centimetres), 4 inches (10 centi-
metres), 6 inches (15 centimetres), and 7 '48 inches (19 centimetres)
thick. The experiments and formulas deduced therefrom lead to
the general law for all thicknesses of fine sand.

a"^

V = (l--4-0-0630E + (0-5 + ?^+^0H.

The record of experiments with a filtering medium, of which
sand is the type, is closed by an investigation into the influence
on filtration of a mixture of fine sand with coarse, the layer
being 15-74 inches (40 centimetres) thick ; on account, however, of
the filter becoming choked by a greenish mould, at a tempera-
ture of 53° -6 Fahr. (12° cent.), it was necessary to use boiling
water. The results of these exj^eriments, with the formulae deduced

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS.

nei

from them, are compared with those relating to filtration through
fine, and also through coarse sand ; and the conclusions are drawn,
that the silting-up and fouling of filters by the substances held
in solution, or carried along with the water, have the effect of
reducing the delivery to one-tenth of the volume which a filter,
kept constantly clean, is capable of j'ielding, and that it is im-
portant to have recourse to pressure in order to increase the
delivery of filter beds.

In experiments with filamentous filters, wool was taken as a
typical substance. The method by which it Avas compressed is de-
scribed, and in filtering through layers of, approximately, 4 inches
(10 centimetres), 12 inches (30 centimetres), 19-7 inches (50 centi-
metres), and 15 '74 inches (40 centimetres) thick, the results are
expressed in the general law —

V = 18 +

0-G7

+ 0-13E

^ +

The effect of compressing layers of wool 8 inches (20 centi-
metres), 12 inches (30 centimetres), and 19-7 inches (50 centi-
metres) thick, with the result of the experiments, leads to the
theory tliat compression acts inversely to an increase of tempera-
ture, cold being equivalent to compression, while heat may be
substituted for the expansion of the layers of a filtering sub-
stance. To heat a woollen filter has the same effect as to compress
it less, and up to a certain point a woollen filter, very much com-
pressed, acts like a filter of heated sand.

The general laws discovered for speed through the different
substances are as follow, p being the pressure, and the other letters
retaining their previous values : —

wool,

ymm = 16 4-0-5 E-t- (0-59 + 0-13 E)- +

o-2i\r

6-4 + i^ + (^0-15 +

E JpJ

coarse sand,

V"^ = 3-|-l-5E-f (0•4-f-0•06E)«-l-
6 / 0-3^

H / 0-3

l + ^-f(^0-05 + -^U

fine sand,

ymm ^ 1 E-f (0-1- 0-063 E)< +

■o; + ^-^(o + ^u

The article concludes by giving the delivery of filtered water
-per hour and square decimetre of filtering surface, and per

362

ABSTRACTS OF PAPEKS IN

twenty-four hours and square metre, whence it will be easy tC"
deduce the quantity of water filtered through any surface whatever,
and, consequently, to determine the proper area for a filter bed.
The three general equations for wool, coarse sand, and fine sand
furnish the speed in millimetres, V, of the water descending per
minute. This speed, multiplied by 1 square metre, will give the
delivery in litres due to this section each minute, that is to say,
100'^2 X 1' X O'*- 01 V = 1^3 V = V litres. Thus, from the above-
general equations the speed of the water descending per minute, or
the number of litres filtered per minute through 1 square metre
of filtering bed, may be obtained. For instance, when V = 16°"",.
the delivery is 16 litres per minute through each square metre
of filtering bed. In order to deduce from the preceding formula^
those for the delivery, D'"^, filtered per square metre and per
twenty-four hours, the delivery, Q litre per l**^ and per hour, must
be multiplied by 24 hours x 100^^ ^ 2,400 x 1 litre; = 2-4'"3. The
delivery, D™^, per 1"^ and per twenty-four hours is therefore equal
to 2-4'°2Q. In "
obtained : —

the same manner the following formulae are

wool (subjected to the pressure p),

j)m3 ^ 23'"3.04_i_0"'3-0288f+0'"3.86 _ -f

0m3.72_|_ 0-1872

(

E +

1 0"3 • 944 4- 0-3024 -

^___ IP

9'"3.i7 + 0-216- +

coarse sand (0*15 millimetre),

33m3 ^ 4"3_j- 0-576 < +

2"'3. 16 -f 0-0864 f

E +

(

im3.44_j_o-072f4-

8"3- 64-1- 0-432/
E

fine sand (0 - 08 millimetre), D"^
= [r3.44_f_ 0-090 /]E-{-

r , /2'°3-016 4-0-217<
0»3.72_|_^ ^

fine muddy sand (approximately for actual filtering beds),

J)m3 _

2'"^H

""E~

J. w. p.

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. oQ?

Grapliic Determination of the Hydraulic Head, velocity of
discliargc, and time of emj^tyinr/ of fluids from vessels of
various forms. By Dr. R. Proll.

(Civilingenieur, .tx. part 5, 1874, cols. 281-294.)

The Author previously published, in the " Civilingenieur " for
1873, a treatise on the Graphic Solution of Dynamic Problems.
This was afterwards issued as a separate work. The present
Paper contains an application of the Author's methods to some
problems in hydrodynamics. Consider a conveniently formed
vessel filled to a known height with a fluid. The vessel has in
its lower end an orifice through which the fluid is discharged.
Then at any moment when the depth of fluid over the orifice is h,
the velocity of discharge is v = ,J 2 gh,, the resistances being for
the present neglected. If vertical and horizontal axes are taken,
a curve can be drawn, the horizontal abscissae of which at each point
are proportional to the velocity of discharge when the water is at the
corresponding level in the vessel. In this case the curve, which
may be obtained by known methods, is a parabola whose parameter
is fj. The Author next draws a curve, the abscissae of which re-
present the rate of sinking of the water surface. If / is the area
of the orifice, and F the area of the section of the vessel at a height
Ix above the orifice, and if v is the velocity of discharge, and w the

velocity of sinking of the water surface, then w — v -=^ or, in other

words, w can be obtained from the abscissae of the previous curve by
reducing it in the ratio /: F. From the nature of the curve, it is
only necessary to make this construction for a few points, and to
draw a line freely through the points so found.

The Author next supposes a point in a third curve, termed the
time curve, to move with a uniform velocity «, in such a way that
it remains always in the plane of the water surface ; the length
of the arc between any two points is then proportional to the time
which elapsed while the water sunk from the level of the first to
the level of the second. The method of drawing this had been
previously given by means of the second curve above mentioned.
When this has been done, all problems relating to the time of dis-
charge can be solved by measuring the time curve. If Z is the length
of the arc between any two levels of the water surface, the time

Z
t =-.

The Author next shows how from the two curves first drawn,
the hydraulic heads at difierent depths in the vessel can be found
graphically as linear magnitudes. He explains how this method
may be applied to the case where the pressure on the surface of
the fluid (constant or variable) is different from the pressure out-
side the orifice of discharge, and how to take into the reckoning

364

ABSTRACTS OP PAPERS IN

the resistance at the mouthpiece and the contraction of the jet.
After discussing the scales suitable for drawing the difierent curves,
and showing how to allow for the diiference of scale, in measuring
the results, he ends by giving examples of the application of the
method to particular cases.

w. c. u.

Rainfall of the Basin of the Seine. By M. Belgraxd.

(Comptes-rendus de I'Academie, Ixxviii., March 30, 1874, pp. 870-878.)

This Paper is a continuation of the hydrologic studies pursued
by MM. Belgrand and Lemoine during twenty years, the results of
which were published by them, under the title of "La Seine, Etudes
Hydrologiques," in 1872. That year w^as remarkably dry at the
commencement and very wet in the autumn, and the observations
taken during those seasons verified the hiw enunciated in 1854,
that the climate of France is uniform to the north of the central
plateau, particularly in the basin of the Seine ; for, at the same
dates, the rainfall was everywhere similar. It was observed
that the altitudes of places, and their distances from the sea,
greatly modified the rainfall — for instance, " Le Haut Follin," the
highest point of the Yonne, has also the greatest rainfall; the
altitude being 2,959 feet (902 metres), and the rainfall in 1872
as much as 105 '55 inches (2,681 millimetres). Four^ neigh-
bouring stations, " Le Bas Follin," " Pommoy," " Croisette," and
" Settons," whose heights are 2,625 feet (800 metres), 2,133 feet
(650 metres), and 2,139 feet (596 metres), had generally decreasing
rainfalls of 96 • 7 inches (2,457 millimetres), 99 • 7 inches (2,533 milli-
metres), 83 • 5 inches (2,121 millimetres), and 80 • 3 inches (2,041 milli-
metres) respectively. At the lowest station of the Yonne, "St.
Martin," at 217 feet (Q'o metres), the rainfall was 30*9 inches
(787 millimetres), the ratio of the highest to the lowest being
as 2,681 to 787, or as 3-4 to 1.

The stations situated beyond 93 miles (150 kilometres) from the
sea receive the smallest amount of rain. Only 22*63 inches (575
millimetres) descended at the lowest point, " Port d' Anglais," at
an elevation of 108 feet (33 metres). The effect of proximity to
the sea, on the other hand, is shown by the rainfall at various
points, which approaches that of mountainous districts, viz. : —

Stations : —

Gournay.

Kouen.

Caudebec.

Yvetot.

Havre-
Ingouville.

„ . 1 , ( in feet
2"S^t 1 in metres

328
(100)

26
(8)

3-28
(1)

495
(151)

292
(89)

T, ■ i. ,, ( in inches

33-31
(840)

33-39

(848)

40-71
(1,034)

47-7
(1,212)

42-6
(1,083)

• Altliongh four stations are spoken of, the altitudes of three alone are given
in the oriirinal.— Sec. Inst. C.E.

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 365

A station at the bottom of a valley near a more elevated plateau
receives almost as much rain as that }Dlateau — Settons, at 1,1)55 feet
(596 metres), is as wet a place as neighbouring stations at 2,959,
2,625, and 2,133 feet (902, 800, and 650 metres) ; the rainfall ex-
ceeding in 1872 78 • 74 inches (2,000 millimetres). At stations which
are not in the vicinity of these heights the rainfall is considerably
less; for instance, at Saulieu and Chateavi-Chinon, 1,827 feet (557
metres) and 1,768 feet (539 metres) respectively, thoTigh neai'ly the
altitude of Settons, it amounted only to 37 "79 inches (960 milli-
metres) and 50 inches (1,271 millimetres).

The number of rainy days near the sea is much greater than
at any other part of the basin ; in 1872 there were at Yvetot 223,
at Caudebec 200, at Fatouville 207, while the mean number for
the entire basin does not exceed 164. The mean rainfall over the
entire basin in 1872 Avas 34*65 inches (880 millimetres); the
average for eight years being 27*87 inches (708 millimetres).
The mean results from observations over the great river-basins

during

1872 were-

Incbes. ISrM.

Inches. MM.

Basin of the Yonno

47 160 (1,198)

Bas

sin of the Mariie

. 40-395 (],02G)

1 J

Upper

> »

Aisne.

. 33-623 (854)

Seine .

36-103 (917)

J >

Oise .

. 30-552 (776)

} »

Middle

J >

Beauce

. 31-969 (812)

Seine .

28-937 (735)

) >

Lower

' >

Loing.

30-119 (765)

Seine

. 35-749 (908)

The Paper also describes the tranquil and torrential streams
of the Seine basin, and the jDeculiarities of their different floods.

L. G.

Tlie nydrologij of the Basin of the Seine. By IM A. Delaire.

(Annales du Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, No. 138, 1874, pp. 335-392.)

The entire basin of the Seine is subject to similar meteorological
influences, and, though the amount of rain varies with the locality,
yet the season, whether wet or dry, is of the same character along
the whole extent of the basin, as proved both by rainfall obser-
vations, and by the height or lowness of the streams. The winter
rainfall determines the moisture of the soil throughout the year,
as the summer rains produce little effect on the rivers or springs.
The sources and the nature of the rivers vary according to the
geological character of the district ; thus where the soil is im-
permeable— as, for instance, the granite of Morvan, the lias of
Auxois, and the clay of Champagne — the streams are numerous but
small, and, as the water runs quickly off the surface, the streams
and rivers swell rapidly, in time of rain, forming torrents, the
beds of which are generally dry in summer. In iiermeable soils,
such as the oolitic limestone of Bourgogne, the white chalk of
Kormandy, and the sands of Fontainebleau, the streams rise in

366 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

the marshy meadows of deep valleys, the springs are considerahle,
and are frequently found at the junction of permeable with imper-
meable strata ; the rivers are few, not generally liable to dry up,
and their course is gentle. The impermeable soils occupy 7,722
square miles (20,000 k. q.) out of the total area of 30,501 square
miles (79,000 k. q.) of the Seine basin.

The torrential rivers have frequent, high, and rapidly rising
floods; the rivers flowing through permeable strata rise slowly,
and only swell moderately; but, owing to successive rainfalls
being merged together, they continue in a state of flood for
a long period, and consequently are more injurious to the adja-
cent lands. Some rivers fed by torrential and other tributa-
ries occupy an intermediate position, and their highest floods
occur when a torrential flood follows several other successive
risings. The torrential floods flow through Paris at the end of
three or four days, and the other flood waters follow three or four
days later. An ordinary rise of flood at Paris is about 11^ feet
(3-5 metres), and a rise of 23 feet (7 metres) has only occurred
«ight times since 1649 ; extraordinary floods being the result of a
thaw followed by excessive rain.

The bridges over a torrential river have to be larger and more
numerous than those over rivers flowing through permeable strata,
but their span need not be increased proportionately at the lower
points of the river, as the flood from one torrent subsides before
another from higher up arrives ; whereas floods in rivers flow-
ing through permeable or mixed strata are increased by each
affluent. In most parts of the basin the rivers have a navigable depth
of water of 4 feet 11 inches (1"5 metre), but the locks vary from
108 to 590 feet (33 to 180 metres) in length, and from 16 to 39
feet (5 to 12 metres) in width. The torrential rivers 1 are of
little use as water power, their flow being irregular, but for
agricultural purposes, and for supplying canals, the flood waters
are led into large ponds to provide against the summer drought.
For mill-dams across rivers flowing over impermeable strata large
weirs and no sluices are required ; over slightly 'permeable strata
both weirs and sluices, and over permeable strata sluices only, are
necessary.

Water for domestic use is obtained purer from springs than from
rivers, even though containing in general more salts of lime. The
purest sources are in sandy soils, and the hardest water comes
from the limestones, lias, and gypsiferous strata. The water supply
of Paris is obtained from the Dhuis and the Vanne.

L. V. H.

FOKEIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 367

Flolo of the West Branch of the Crotoii River.
By J. James K. Croes.

(Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, July 1874, pp. 76-86, 2 pi.)

The first storage reservoir for impounding a portion of the
surplus flow of the river, begun in 1866, on the western branch
of the Croton, in the town of Kent, 60 miles north of New York,
receives the drainage of 20 • 37 square miles ; the surface of the
watershed being broken, the hillsides steep and rocky, the area
covered with timber and grass, and the rock underlying the area
a compact gneiss. Two thousand five hundred and ten observa-
tions of the flow of the stream were made near the dam, from
April 1867 to November 1872, during certain periods as often as
three times a day. All the water flowing from the drainage
area to the reservoir was caused to pass over a weir with
a horizontal crest, and provided with vertical side boards 1 inch
thick. In the first series of gaugings the weir was 24 feet long, in
subsequent ones 21-15 feet, afterwards reduced to 18 • 02 feet. The
channel just above the weir was 3 feet wider than the weir was
long, with parallel sides, planked for 15 feet, above which it
widened. The height of the crest of the weir above the bottom of
the channel on the upper side was about 18 inches, and there was
a clear fall of about 30 inches on the lower side. With this weir
and heads of water of 0*15 foot to 4 feet perfect contraction was
obtained. The head was measured by a float gauge inclosed in a
box, and attached to a graduated rod. Ordinarily there was no
difficulty in reading this gauge to 0*005 foot. When the float
was unsteady, the mean of the oscillations for several minutes was
taken. The gauge was placed far enough above the weir to be
unafiected by the slope of the surface of the water in passing over
the weir. In gaugings later than 1868, the channel was obstructed
by a dam with two openings of 4.7-feet diameter.

In storms the flow increased as soon as the rain began to fall, the
maximum being reached six to eight hours after the rain had
ceased. On the 1st of August, 1867, the flow was 28,000 cubic feet
per hour. Between 7 p.m. and noon next day 1 * 96 inch of rain fell,
and by 6 p.m. the volume had increased to 336,000 feet per
hour. On the 15th, rain having fallen in the interval, the flow
at 7 p.m. was 242,000 cubic feet per hour. At 10 a.m. of the 16th
3 • 38 inches of rain had fallen, and by 6 p.m. the flow had reached
2,432,000 cubic feet, an average hourly increase of 95,000 cubic
feet. This was the greatest discharge observed. On the 17th of
February, 1870, the ground being covered with snow, thaw set in,
with 2 • 41 inches of rain in twenty-eight hours. The water came
in such quantities that the openings in the dam were insufficient
to carry it off; it rose 20 feet, nearly 50,000,000 cubic feet having
accumulated behind the dam. For twenty-four hours the flow was
2,200,000 cubic feet per hour, making 52,800,000 cubic feet per day ;

368 ABSTKACTS OF PAPERS IN

the maximum discharge must have been about 3,500,000 cubic feet
per hour ; while during the month of September 1870 the total dis-
charge of the stream for thirty days was only 4,508,000 cubic feet.
Accompanying diagrams show the monthly rainfall from June 1866
to January 1874, and the flow of the stream during the forty-nine
months in which gaugings were made; a set of tables gives the
depth of rainfall on the entire watershed, the ratio of flow to
rainfall, the yearly proportion of flow to rainfall, and comparisons

of different gaugings,

J. D. L.

Belation hehveen Water Levels of Main Rivers in Holland.

By J. P. Delprat.

(Tijdschrift van het Knninklijk Instituut Van Ingenieurs, No. 1, 1874, pp. 1-12.)

The purpose of this investigation is to find a simple formula from
which the height of the water level at any point of a river may be
deduced, when the height at any other station along the same
river is known by observation during two consecutive days.

Supposing the increase and decrease in height of water level
along the river to be changing in the same ratio, the formula
becomes : — •

H = a -\-hh-\- ch^, where

a, 5, and c denote constant co-efficients, which depend upon the
form of the river bed, and the distance from each place to
the station, taken as the basis of the calculations and
observations ;
li and li} represent the height of the water line during two conse-
cutive days at the main station ;
H the same height on the latter of the two days at any other

point along the river.
The constant co-efiicients are to be deduced from a series of
observations. In Holland these observations are made daily with
regard to the height of the water along the main rivers, at distances
varying from 4 to 30 kilometres. The correctness of the formula
is checked by comparing the results of the calculations with the
observations at an earlier or a later date than those chosen
for the basis. The Author has calculated the value of a, &, and
c for several places along the two main branches of the Ehine,
called the Waal and the Neder-Ehijn, or Lek, where observations
showed a considerable rise and fall of water during a short time.
When applying the formula to cases of an earlier or a later date,
and comparing the results with those already obtained, the dif-
ferences were found to be very small, seldom amounting to a deci-
metre. As soon as the rivers get into an abnormal state^ — for
instance, in consequence of the breaking or overflowing of a dam —
the formulfe are no longer aj)plicable; the differences between

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 3GD

observation and calculation amounting in some cases to 50 or
70 centimetres.

Here the formula indicates the influence of accidents upon the
height of the water. If, for instance, the heights at the main
station and at any other he observed, the height for the latter is
deduced from the formula, the result giving the height of water
under normal circumstances ; nearly the whole variation therefore
is to be considered the consequence of the abnormal conditions.
Several examples and tables prove the correctness of the formula,
and its practical value. J. M. T.

Observations on Subterranean Water in Dresden.

By Herr Manck.

(Protokolle des Sachsischen Ingenieur-Vereins, Sept. 7, 1874, pp. 4-9.)

It having been asserted by the Munich physician Von Petten-
kofer that the lowness of subterranean water was distinctly con-
nected with outbreaks of epidemics, observations of subterranean
watercourses were commenced in Dresden in 18 (J 7, and have been
continued down to the present day, at ninety-two wells selected
in various parts of the old town, the new town, and the suburbs.
Eighteen principal wells were examined every Monday morning
at six o'clock, and the other seventy-four on the first of every
month ; the operations being under the immediate direction of the
Author, As a measuring instrument he employed an impervious
tape with a slate stave attached to the end. The relation between
the surface of each well and the level of the Elbe being exactl}-
known, a simple calculation was sufficient to determine the height
of the subterranean water-level above that level. The heights
thus ascertained varied considerably ; on the left bank of the
river between 13" 1 feet and 72*2 feet (4 metres and 22 metres) ;
on the right bank between IG'4 feet and 59 feet (5 metres and
18 metres), the difference being partly caused by the variation in
the surface, partly by the impervious layers of stone on which
the water moved. These layers consisted principally of rag-
stone at a depth of from 39-4 feet to 54 feet (12 to 16-5 metres)
below the surface ; the upper strata being on the left bank coarse
gravel and pebbles, and on the right bank fine gravel and sand.
It was found that in the strata of coarse gravel and pebbles the
variations in the water level were much more pronounced and
sudden. By means of horizontal curves drawn on the plan of
the city to represent the simultaneous observations, and by lines
connecting different wells, the Author was enabled to calcu-
late with tolerable accuracy the rapidity with which the water
travelled from one pump to another, and having taken a line
running from three sueli wells to the Elbe, he found that in
thirty-five days the water percolated from the Konigsbriicker well
[1874^75. N.S.] 2 B

370 . ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

to tlic river. Chemical analj^sis proved tlie presence of nitrites
and nitrates, indicating contamination from cesspools and drains.
The old town surrounded by the ancient walls has generally verj-
Lad water, the suburbs, on the other hand, mostly good water,
except where it has been spoiled by the products of the tanning
yards. By these observations it has been possible to localise con-
tamination, and point with precision to its source ; for whereas
in some parts of the suburbs the water is very impure, the pumps
on the Trinity churchyard and the Jewish churchyard contained
perfectly pure water, the level there being low, and the soil
exceedingly fine. The fact that, in the midst of the old city,
pumps supply water free from nitrates, shows that the great mass
flowing continually towards the river is pure, and can be made
purer.

J. D. L.

On the FIovj of Atmospheric Air. By Albert Fliegner.

Prof, of Theoretical Mechanics at the Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich.

(Civil-Ingenieur, xx., part 1, 1874, cols. 14-47.)

Let atmospheric air flow from a vessel, in which the pressure,
specific volume and temperature have the constant values pj' ^2' ^2'
into another vessel in which the pressure is constant and equal to
j5i, through an opening of area F. Then the velocity to of discharge
and the weight G discharged per second, on the hypothesis that the
air neither receives nor parts with heat, are given by the expres-
sions : — •

" V|^^ ^^TT 0^2 ^2-2^1^1)} (!•)

k+ 1

k —,

These formulae neglect the resistances, which Zeuner was the
first to take into account. He changed equation 2, by putting for
the exponent of the adiabatic curve, k = 1'41, in the expression
in angular brackets, a discharge exponent n <; Jc, Then

« + 1

Also, P2 K = Pi ^1"'

When the inner pressure is constant and the external pressure
varies, both (2) and (3) give a maximum value of G for a given
ratio of p^ to P2, a result neither probable nor agreeing with
experience. To render the formulae useful a correction must be
applied.

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 371

Two proceedings may be followctl. The actual moiitlipieee area
"F may be replaced by a peciiliar contraction, area a F -< F, and
the co-efficient a found by experiment. Or the path taken may be that
indicated first by St. Venant and Wantzel, and later, independently,
by J. R. Napier, and adopted by Zeuner and Eankine. Equations
(1) to (3) are indisputable if py be the pressure in the plane of tho
inouthpiece. The peculiar deduction from tho formulae would there-
fore indicate that the pressure in the plane of the mouthpiece is not
ixlways equal to the external pressure. In his approximate formula?,
Napier assumed that for p^^ > 0*5 p.^ the external pressure extends
to the plane of the mouthpiece; for p-^ ■< Oop.j, on the contrary,
the pressure in the plane of the mouthpiece is independent of the
external pressure, and remains constantly — 0"5 p.,. The limiting

value —=0*5 corresponds to the maximum value of G in Napier's

approximate formulaj. The accurate equation (2) gives the value
0'o26G, and if the resistances are taken into account it would be
greater.

Napier tested his formulte by experiments with steam. The
Author indicates some defects in the method of these experiments,
and since a discontinuity of the above description is very im-
probable, at all events for air, concludes that Napier's results are
only approximate. The question as to the pressure in the mouth-
piece plane being of fundamental importance, it is desirable to have
direct experiments on that point.

In these experiments the same apparatus was used which Zeuner
had employed. Well-rounded mouthpieces only were subjected to
experiment, having a narrow cylindrical part at the outer end, to
prevent contraction of the jet. Into this cylindrical part opened a
small orifice "04 in. (1°^) in diameter, communicating with a man-
ometer. The pressure in the interior of the reservoir was indicated
by an air manometer. The experiments were made as follows : —
The cock was opened for about a minute. During the flow, the man-
ometers were read about every five seconds, simultaneously, by word
of command. The person giving the signals caused these moments
-of time, and also those of opening and of closing the cock, to be re-
gistered by the seconds finger of a chronometer with the aid of elec-
tricit}-. When the temperature in the reservoir was again equal to
the external temperature the experiment was continued. Sometimes
the discharge was allowed to take place for a shorter time, and the
pressures at opening and closing the cock were alone noted. The
results thus obtained were less accordant.

The Author indicates some difficulties and sources of error in this
method, lieliable numerical results were obtained with only two
mouthpieces. The diameter of one was O'lG in. (4-085""'), that
of the other was 0-29 in. (7-314°""). Tables of experiments with
these mouthpieces are given, and the results are also exhibited
graphically. Let p' be the pressure in the ])lane of the mouthpiece
and 2>o that in the reservoir. By setting off the observed values of

2 B 2

372 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

^2 Horizontally and those of y)' vertically, and by connecting the
points thus given, a curve is obtained. This curve commences at the
point whose ordinate and abscissa are both equal to the barometric
pressure during the experiment, because for that point the ex-
ternal and internal pressures, and the pressure in the plane of
the mouthpiece, are all equal. The external pressure remaining
constant, and the internal pressure increasing, the curve repre-
senting the corresponding values of p' follows approximately an
inclined straight line. When the inner pressure is about twice the
external pressure, the curve rises with a sharp bend, in order to
approach asymptotically a straight line, passing through the origin
of co-ordinates. The curve approaches its asymptote so rapidly,
that when the inner pressure is a little more than twice the
external pressure, it may be replaced by the asymptote without
any great error. The direction of the asymptote the Author
supposes to be independent of the external pressure. The mean

value ^— , which determines this direction, is found from the

experiments to be

^ = 0-5767 .... (4.)

These results show Napier's hypothesis to be inaccurate, but it
may be accepted as the simplest approximation to the true law.

The hypothesis mentioned above also assumes that the ratio
Pj :jP2» or more strictly jp':p2' can never be smaller than that value
of it which makes the expression in equation (3)

2 n + 1

-(ST-(£)"- •(«■>

a maximum. The Author shows that this leads to the result, that
the co-efficient of resistance of the mouthpiece has the enormous value
t, — 1*4, while for water it is only 0'063. He concludes, therefore,

that the limiting value to which the ratio — approximates asym-

ptotically is not related to the maximum of i//, but is dependent on
other circumstances. Further, he rejects the hypothesis that the
maximum velocity of discharge is equal to the velocity of transmis-
sion of sound.

A totally different limiting value for the velocity of discharge
can be obtained from the theory of the molecular constitution of
permanent gases. According to that theory the molecules are at
relatively great mean distances from each other. They move in
straight lines till they impinge on other molecules, or on a solid
boundary. Then they rebound as iffrom perfectly elastic impact.
The pressure f of the gases against a solid boundary (in kilos, per
•sq. metre) [lbs. per sq. ft.] is due to this impact, and depends on

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 373

the mass M contained in 1 cub. mttrc and the mean constant
velocity ii of the molecules. It is given by the expression

p = IM ul or M (-^Y;

that is, it is equal to the vis viva of the whole mass impinging
against the boundary with the velocity u: a/S. If the boundary
is immovable the mass rebounds with the same velocity. If, on
the contrary, the boundary is displaced, in consequence of the
smaller external pressure, the particles rebound with less velocity
than they approached. Proceeding to the limit, and assuming the
external pressure to be equal to zero, then the impinging mass
will not be impeded, but will proceed with its velocity

V3
unchanged, and this must be the greatest velocity of discharge.
The limiting value of p' must therefore be so assumed that to does
not exceed this value.

Let V be the specific volume of air at the temperature T

M=l

•••^ = 37^'

and^since for permanent gases

p y = E T,

inserting the known values of the constant, and replacing T by the
temperature of the reservoir

m;^. = 16-04G VT2 • •_• • (7.)
[10^. = 55 -605 VT2].

It is also possible to obtain to as a function of T2 from equation (1).
Put p., v^ = K 1\ and neglecting the resistances

After reduction

For the limiting value found by experiment, namely

P^ = t. = 0-57G7,
P2 Ih

374 ABSTRACTS OF PAPEES IN

this gives

^max. = 17-092 ^% • •_• • (S-)

[«W, = 56-077 V'ly.

This value agrees so closely with that in (7) that the Atithoi'
assumes his hypothesis as to the limiting velocity to be correct.

When the law of the change of pressure in the plane of the
mouthpiece has been approximately obtained by expei-iment, the
exponent of discharge n in equation (3) can be determined by
other experiments. But as n can only be found by trial, in conse-
quence of the form of the equation, the Author prefers to make an
hypothesis as to the value of «, and to test it afterwards by
experiment.

Theoretical considerations show that as the co-efficient of resis-
tance for water flowing through thin-edged orifices is the same as
that for well-rounded mouthpieces, the resistance must be chiefly
internal, and the external frictional resistance against the mouth-
piece sensibly zero. But for air the internal resistance is also zero.
Hence for air there is no sensible resistance, at thin-edged orifices
or well-rounded mouthpieces, and consequently n = Tc. If this is
true, then eq. (2) gives the discharge, when the pressure p^ is
understood to mean the pressure p' in the plane of the mouthpiece.
This equation can be put in a more convenient form. For per-
manent gases P2 ^2 = I^ "^2' ^or simj)licity also let

2 fc + 1

= (£^ _ (I

Then equation (2) becomes

i^-vr^T^.i}. . . . (10.)

"When the internal pressure p^ is more than about double the-
external barometric pressure h, the pressure in the plane of the
mouthpiece has been shown to be independent of the external
pressure. In that casep':p2> and consequently \p is constant. It
follows that

^ = mp^ .... (11.)

m depending only on the temperature and having the value for
jp':^2 = 0-5767

TO = =r- .... (12.)

VT2

27*95
[for lbs. per sq. ft. and pressure in inches of mercury m = - — =^

For smaller internal pressures, the Author finds the following em-

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 375

pirical expression to agree almost exactly with experiment, the
values of r= having been calculated by equation (10) from the
experimentally ascertained values of p'

^ = V«(P.j -^) • • • • (13.)

and the value of a is found to bo such that this expression is

almost exactly equal to

/"I

- = 2mp.,^(p.,-h),

a being dependent on the temperature and internal pressure, and m
having the same value as before.

These expressions, obtained on the hypothesis that for well-
rounded mouthpieces the resistance is insensibly small, require
next to be tested by experiment. The Author discusses fully the
difficulties and sources of error to which experiments on the flow
of air are liable.

Tables of experiments by Zeuner, "Weisbach, and the Author are
then given, and the values of a and m are calculated from them. If
the hypothesis" that 1c = n is true, these values should agree with the
independent values given above. This is found to be the ease.

w. c. u.

BesuJts of Experimental Researches on the Discharge of Air binder
Great Pressures. By Dr. Gustav Zeuner.

(Cirilingenieur, xx., part 1, 1874, cols. 1-14.)

These researches on the flow of air through simple mouthpieces
were made with a large apparatus belonging to the Federal Poly-
technic School at Zurich. The Author gives a short history of the
question for solution, to explain the necessity for the experiments.
If air flows from one vessel in which the pressure is constant into
another in which the pressure is also constant, the air expands
during its flow from the mouthpiece in consequence of the ditfer-
ence of pressure w^hich must be gradual between the two limits.
According to the assumptions made, as to the law connecting the
change of pressure and volume of the moving air, diff"erent formulte
of discharge are obtained. Letp^ T^e the pressure in the reservoir,
from which the air is discharged (in kilogrammes per square
metre, lbs. per square foot), and p^ that in the receiving a'csscI.
Then, assuming the temperature of the air to remain constant,
the formula of Navier (1827) is obtained, which gives for the
velocity of discharge

= -v/{2i7ET,logp,| . . . (1.)

376

ABSTKACTS OF PAPERS IN

and for tlie volume discharged V, measured at the inner pressure,
per second and per square metre (square foot) of mouthpiece area, —

where R has a constant value, and for air and for metric measures,
is eqiml to 96-012 feet (29-272 metres); g is the acceleration of
gravity, and Tg the absolute temjjerature of the air in the reservoir
on the centigrade scale.

If, on the contrary, it be assumed that the air flowing through
the mouthpiece exjDands in an adiabatic curve — that is, without
receiving or losing heat — then the formula of Weisbach (1855) is
obtained, giving for the velocity of discharge

-V{

k- 1

7731 ^^ ^2

l-(^

(2.)

in which Jc is a constant, which for air is 1-41. The volume

discharged is -

V =

^/^.4,-.[(f:)'-(l:)']}• •("■)

The preceding formulge had been given in 1839 by St. Venant and
Wantzel. If the resistances be taken into account, the right-hand
member of equation (II.) must be multiplied by a factor of correc-
tion, the co-efficient of discharge. Or, the investigation may pro-
ceed on the supposition that the resistances merely change the
expansion curve. From theoretical considerations the Author was
thus led to the followino- formulas : —

W{'

R T.,

^ = \/h.4TKT,[(

-J (p,\ ■ -

\pj J

2 n + I

Tl\ fPl\ "

fJ KlhJ

(3.)

(III.)

in which n is a constant to be determined by experiment, is smaller
than Jc, and may be termed the exponent of discharge.

A consideration of these formulse leads to the question requiring
solution. If the inner pressure p^ ^^^ the inner temperature Tg
be invariable, and for different experiments difterent external
pressures pi be taken, then all three formulse indicate that an
external j^ressure exists, for which the discharge per second and
per unit of mouthpiece area is a maximum. The values of the

ratio — which make V a maximum are then calculated, and are

shown, to lie for all the formulae between 0-5 and O'G. Now, if
the discharge is a maximum when the external pressure is

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 377

about half tho internal pressiive, it follows iliat tlie di.scliargo
dimiuislics if the external pressure is further diminished, and the
formuke show that it becomes zei'O simultaneously with the external
pressure. Accordingly, into a vacuum there is no discharge. It
follows from this absurd result, either that all the formulae are
false, or that in using them some inadmissible assumption has
been made. It is now believed that the latter is the case, and
St. Yenant and Wantzel, in ISoO, pointed out that tho pressure pi is
not the pressure in the receiving vessel, but in the plane of the
orifice, and that these two pressures are only identical when
;), : p., is greater than about 04. They supposed that when the
ratio is smaller, the discharge remains constant, and also pi : p.,,
if by pi is understood the pressure in the plane of the mouth-
piece. The ratio 0*4 was obtained from their experiments, to
test the accuracy of the preceding hypothesis.

The work of St. Venant and Wantzel remained a long time
unnoticed, owing chiefly to Poncelet having raised the objection
that the scale of their experiments was too small. Max Hermann
first returned to the question (1860) after Weisbach (1855) had
rediscovered equation (II.). In 1871, Kankine investigated the ques-
tion, reopened by Napier's experiments on a large scale on the flow
of steam, and the Author then published his formula (HI.)- Con-
siderations dra^vn from the mechanical theory of heat led to the
conclusion that St. Venant and Wantzel's method of investigation
was faulty, and other experiments did not furnish the data requi-
site for a solution of the question, because tho pressures at which
they were made were not sufficiently great.

The Author had for several years been convinced of the accu-
racy of the h3q:)othesis of St. Venant and Wantzel, and felt the
desirability of subjecting it to larger and more careful tests.
His apparatus consisted of a cylindrical vessel of boiler plate,
13-78 feet (4-2 metres) in length, and 1"64 foot (0*5 metre) in
diameter. Its capacity, gauged with great care, was 28'637 cubic
feet (0*81088 cubic metre). The vessel was proved to ten atmo-
spheres, and was fuinished with a pump, by which air could be
compressed into it. It carried a seating with a wide neck, having
a tight cock with a wide passage through it, on the open end of
which the mouthpiece could be fitted. A well-divided open mercury
manometer was connected with the interior of the reservoir, and
was capable of indicating pressures up to four atmospheres. The
apparatus was similar to that of Weisbach, and the Author at first
supposed that a simple extension of Weisbach's experiments to
higher pressures would suffice to solve the qiTCstion at issue. A
series of experiments soon showed that a circumstance had to be
taken into account, which had been overlooked, and which greatly
affected the results. In Weisbach's method, after the air has been
compressed, and the equilibrium of temperature re-established,
the pressure in the reservoir is noted. The air is next allowed
to flow for one or two minutes into the receiver, when tho
cock is quickly closed, and the height of the manometer observed.

378 ABSTEACTS OF PAPERS IN

After tlie mercury gauge lias again become stationar}-, its height
is again noted. During the discharge there is a fall of tempera-
ture in the reservoir. After closing the cock, heat enters through
the sides of the reservoir, and the pressure rises, until, the tem-
jjerature inside and outside having become equal, it again becomes
constant. The three pressure observations sulBfice to test the ac-
curacy of the formulae of discharge, if the temperature and
barometric pressure of the external air and the capacity of the
reservoir are known. But they are not sufficient, unless, as
Weisbach assumed, the air in the boiler expands without re-
ceiving or losing heat. During the relatively long period of
discharge the pressure change in the reservoir followed a dif-
ferent law, in consequence of the heat imparted to it during
expansion by the sides of the reservoir. The Author therefore
adopted a new method of experiment. He permitted the air to
flow, at intervals, in the following way. After the air in the reser-
A'oir was compressed to about four atmospheres, and the manometer
showed the equilibrium of temperature to be established, the cock
was opened, and the air allowed to flow for about ten seconds.
At the end of the time the cock was closed, and the manometer
level noted. After about ten or fifteen minutes the manometer
was again noted. The experiments were thus continued till
the pressure in the reservoir was reduced nearly to that of the
external air. From the short duration of each experiment, the
influence of the heat given to the air by the reservoir sides was
so much diminished that it could be allowed for by a simple for-
mula of apj)roximation.

For any single experiment, let the initial pressure in milli-
metres of mercury column = li.^ ; the final ijressure, after closing
the mouthpiece and after the equilibrium of temperature is
re-established, = \, and the time of discharge = t. Then for a
first approximation

- log v^

t ^ \

should be constant, so long as the inner pressure is more than
about twice the external pressure, if the above hypothesis be true.
On the other hand, the value of this expression must diminish Avith
the inner pressure as soon as it becomes less than about double the
external pressure.

The Author experimented with three kinds of mouthpieces :
1. Short, internally rounded conoidal mouthpieces, of 0 • 161, 0 • 228,
0-276 inch (4-1, 5-78, and 7*0 mm.) diameter. 2. Short cylin-
drical mouthpieces, with the internal edges not rounded, of
0-228, 0-276 inch (5-79 and 7-0 mm.) diameter. 3. Orifices in
thin plates of 0-161, 0-228, 0-276, 0-394 inch (4-09, 5-79, 7-0,
and 10*0 mm.) diameter.

The first two kinds of mouthpieces gave results consistent with
the hypothesis of Wantzel and St. Venant. The third kind, ori-
fices in thin plates, showed a small departure from that hypothesis,

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 37 f>

■which the Author explains by the circiimstanco that the contrac-
tiou of the jet alters with the pressure, increasing slowly as the
pressure increases.

The defect in the method of experiment employed Ly St. Vcnant
and Wantzel is then discussed, and one series of experiments is
given as a sample of the results obtained.

W. C. U.

The Brainage System of Dantzie.

By Hj:rr von AVinter, Mayor of Dantzie.

(Baugewerks Zeitung, Sept. 27, 1874.)

At the last congress of the German Association for Public Ilealtb
in Dantzie, Herr von Winter, the Mayor, gave a brief account of
the drainage system which had been carried out between August
1869 and December 1871. The main sewers are of brickwork in
cement, 4 feet 1 inch (4 Fuss) high, 2 feet 9 inches (2 Fuss 8 Zoll)
broad, and 13,382 feet (13,000 Fuss) long, and lie 9 feet 3 inches to'
20 feet 7 inches (9 to 20 Fuss) underground. There are seven iron
doors for flushing, forty-five side-entrance shafts for cleansing,
eighteen ventilating shafts, and ten outlets for rainwater. The
street drain-pipes, of earthenware, 9 • 05 inches (9 • 18 Zoll) diameter,
have a total length of 40,474 yards (118,000 Fuss), and carry off tho
Avater from the surface of the roads and roofs through four hixndred
and twenty gratings. Arrangements are made for preventing the
sewer gas from entering the houses, and the ventilation of the
sewers is provided for by three hundred and ten manholes, and
one hundred and eighteen ventilating shafts projecting slightly
above the roadway, the ojDenings of which are closed by the
pressure of gas from within, unless they are opened purposely and
filled with charcoal. From the main sewers the sewage is conveyed
by two wrought-iron pipes 18-53 and 27*8 inches (18 and 27 Zoll)
in diameter, 15 feet under watermark, through the Mottlau to the
pumping station on the island, there being a fall of 1 in 1,500 in
the old town, and of 1 in 2,400 in the " Niederstadt." The flushing
is performed in twenty days by six men. Before entering the
pumping station, the sewage passes through two rotating sieves
that separate the solid matter. Two Woolff's steam-engines of
60 HP. each, either of which is able to do the work, drive tho
sewage through 10,400 feet (10,100 Fuss) of cast-iron pipes 20 inches
(22 Zoll) in diameter to the " Eicsenfelder," a tract of drtues outside
the town. 'I'here have been brought under cultivation 252 acres
(400 Morgen), and, as grass did not seem to prosper, turnips, maize,
tobacco, vegetables, grain and oats have been sown. During 1873,
about 48 acres (75 Morgen) produced 423 bushels (280 Scheflcl at
85 Pfund), and were sold on the spot at 4|rf. per bushel. Tho
vegetables returned a gross sum of £16 10s. (110 Thaler) per

oSO ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

morgen. The other results were equally satisfactorj'', and the
odour was not considered so bad as that of a freshly manured field.
The entire cost is calculated at £105,000 (700,000 Thaler).

J. D. L.

Utilisation of the Sewer Water of Paris for Agricultural
Purposes. By M. Alfred Durand-Claye.

(Bulletin de la Societe d'Encouragement, October 1874, pp. 54-0-544.)

The sanitary condition of large towns has, of late years, be-
come a matter of so much importance as to demand the serious
consideration of municipal authorities. The massing together of
populations, and the increase of manufactories producing large
quantities of detritus, have endangered health, and the rate of
mortality continues high in all towns which have neglected
suitable sanitary precautions. Since 1837 sewers have been con-
structed in Paris to carry off the refuse water. In 1850 their
length amounted to 88-7 miles; at present it amounts to 372 'G
miles. They follow the lines of the streets upon each bank of the
Seine, and terminate in two main sewers, one for each side of the
river. Into these the refuse water from the houses, and that used
for the public service in the streets, is discharged. The main
sewer on the left bank is carried under the river by a syphon
placed on the up-stream side of the Alma bridge. It subsequently
joins the main sewer on the opposite bank, and their united contents
are poured into the Seine at Clichy below the Asnieres bridge. A
third system of drains receives the liquid refuse of Montmartre, La
Chapelle, Belleville, Saint Denis and Bondy, and discharges into
the Seine above the Saint Denis canal.

The volume of water thus collected varies with the time of the
year and the requirements of the municipal service, but the
average daily discharge exceeds 44 million gallons at Clichy. and
amounts to nearly 9 millions at Saint Denis. The total discharge
into the Seine is 672 gallons per second. The water in the main
sewer contains, in 220 gallons (1 cubic metre) 5 • 06 lbs. of foreign
matter, one half of which is composed of solid substances held in
mechanical suspension, and the other half of those in solution and
suitable for manure. The analysis of the foreign matter in the
220 gallons gives, among other things, 586 '3 grains of potash,
663*5 grains of nitrogen, and 262*3 grains of phosphoric acid.
The refuse water from the neighbourhood of Saint Denis is of a
•very impure character, and in 220 gallons there are 7*9 lbs. of
foreign matter, including 2,160 grains of nitrogen. These figures
are sufficient to show what an injurious effect the drainage of
Paris must produce upon the Seine. In one year upwards of
196,500 cubic yards of refuse are poured into it. The putrescible
soluble products, and the noxious gases arising from the fermenta-
tion of the sewage, pollute the river for a great distance. A bar

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 381

was created at Clicliy, wliich stopped the navigation, and so
sorion.sly interfered with the course of the river, that the autho-
rities have been obliged to maintain a permanent system of dredg-
ing, wliich involves an annual expense of £8,000. In addition to
the material evils resulting froni this condition of the city, a very
pernicious effect is produced upon the riparian inhabitants of the
Seine. Continual comidaints emanate from those inhabiting the
districts below Clichy, and it has become necessary to promptly
remedy the present state of affairs. All that has hitherto been
done is to remove to the exterior of Paris a portion of those causes
of insalubrity from which it desires to be free.

The different remedies which have been employed under similar
circumstances were inquired into. A commission was appointed
in 1806 to report upon the matter, and M. Mille, the engineer-in-
chief, was deputed to visit other countries, with the view of ascer-
t;iining what course of action had been followed by them. He
found that at Valencia, Milan, and Edinburgh, the sewage water
had been employed for years past in the irrigation of the soil.

Of the various systems in operation, three merit particular con-
sideration. The first is that of filtration. The experiments with
regard to this method, in France and neighbouring countries,
have demonstrated the impossibility of its extended application.
Nothing is easier than to filter a small quantity of foul water, and
to remove the dejiosits. But when it becomes necessary to filter
53 million gallons of water per day, or nearly 20,000 million
gallons per annum, and to cleanse the filter beds each day of over
3,000 tons of solid refuse, the practical diflSculties become too great.
]\Ioreover, filtration does not remove all the solulile substances in
the sewage water, but leaves a quantity of nitrogenous matter,
salts of potash and other putrescible ingredients, sufficient to
pollute a river.

The late M. Le Chatelier proposed to clarifj- sewage water by
sulphate of alumina, which causes a double decomposition, and
forms a mass with the solid ingredients. This method was tried,
as an experiment, in filtering tanks near the main outfall at Clichy,
with satisfactory results. A quantity of scAvage water exceeding
22 million gallons was so treated, and the solid residue, volume
for volume, was equal in quality to that of good farmyard manure.
The cost of the process was about one penny for every thousand
gallons of liquid so treated. The method is still used as an aid to
irrigation, and as a means of clarifying water which cannot be
made serviceable for any other purpose.

The third method consists in the direct employment of sewage
water for the irrigation of the soil. To the effects of this system
must be ascribed the fertility of the plains of Milan, of the fields
near Edinburgh, and of the gardens of Valencia. In 1807 some
land near Clichy was placed under irrigation, when the soil
absorbed annually 3^ million gallons of sewage water per acre.
The produce of this method of cultivation was of an excellent
description; an acre of marsh land thus treated yielded a gross

382 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

profit of £71, and the purified effluent water contained but a small
quantit}^ of nitrogenous matter.

The success of these experiments determined the Parisian autho-
rities to make a trial upon a larger scale. A couple of engines,
each of 40 HP., were erected upon the left bank of the Seine.
They pump daily 1,320,000 gallons of liquid into a sewer nearly
1 mile in length, which passes over the bridge of Clichy, and is
•connected with a reservoir situated between Asnieres and Gen-
nevilliers, from which the sewage flows over the whole plain. The
authorities of the city of Paris have acquired about 15 acres of
land, in the vicinity of this reservoir, to carry out experiments;
and have also made arrangements to supply the liquid sewage to
any one desiring it. Instead of 15 acres, 100 acres are now under
irrigation. The product per acre amounts to 40 tons of potatoes,
200 tons of beetroot, for cattle feeding, and 80 tons of lucerne in
two cuttings. The permeability of the soil is so great that in two
months it absorbed 210,000 cubic yards of water per acre.

The war in 1870-1871 interrupted the experiments, but in 1872
they were recommenced, and the city voted £40,000 towards them.
By means of a deviation the contents of the main sewer of St. Denis
were delivered at the bridge of St. Ouen, at an elevation sufficient
to enable them to be carried over the bridge without pumping ;
thus placing 9 million gallons of water, rich iu manurial elements,
at the disposal of the farmers, for the purposes of irrigation.

At Clichy an engine of 150 HP. lifts nearly 9 J million gallons
of liquid out of the main sewer, passes it over the reconstructed
bridge of Clichy, and discharges it into drains situated on the left
bank of the Seine. Double centrifugal pumps of special construc-
tion, working at low speed, lift, together with the liquid con-
tents of the sewers, any impurities and solid ingredients which
they may contain, without the use of a strainer or gridiron. The
result of these arrangements has been to utilise for irrigation,
since the commencement of 1874, the sixth part of the water in
the Paris sewers, a quantity due to a population of three hundred
thousand, inhabiting a city abundantly furnished with fountains,
and exceedingly well watered.

At present, the labours of the municipal authorities are princi-
pally directed towards increasing the number of the carriers, or
channels of distribution, so that the whole plain may be ade-
quately supplied. Although, at first, owing to the excessive
porosity of the soil, 9 million gallons of water were distributed
over 1 acre, yet subsequently the quantity has been reduced to
exactly one-half, which is sufficient for general cultivation. The
extension of the distributing channels is indispensable in order
to insure the utilisation of the liquid.

The result of these works is deserving of attention. So far as
concerns the purification of the liquid, it is found that the effluent
^vater contains but 1 or 2 parts of nitrogen, instead of the original
44. From an agricultural point of view, the improvement is
■equally manifest. Cabbages, asparagus, artichokes, beetroot, and

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND TERIODICALS. 383

salads thrive well, and find a ready sale. I'lants of a more delicate
character, such as mint, flowers, and fruit-trees, are also grown
on the land. The gross yield per acre varies from £24 to £48 in
the open fields ; but in the more sheltered and better cultivated
parts of the ground it has amounted to even £112.

The utilisation of the sewer water of Paris on the plain of Gen-
nevilliers, containing an area of 800 acres of sandy soil, is now
practically carried out. If from any cause this area should be
found insufficient, there would be no difficulty in extending the
base of operations over the territory of Chatou, Avhich would afford
an additional 1,600 acres. Other land, equally well adapted for
irrigation, can also be procured.

C. T.

Dresden WaterivorJcs. By Herr Salbach.

(ProtokoUe des Sachsischen Jngenieur-Vereins, Jfay 10, 1874, pp. 17-11, 1 pi.)

After some introductory remarks about the question of water
supply for large cities, as now understood in Germany, and about
the laws of natural and artificial filtration, the Author proceeds to
describe the valley of the Elbe. This is formed partly of granite,
and partly of deposits of a later period, underlying considerable
depths of clear, fine sand, such as the large tract known as the
Dresden Heath, through which water percolates with great rapidity.
As the few open springs yielded only a slight quantity of water, it
was surmised that the underground watercourses must be rich ;
but borings made in 1867, on the summit and slope of the heath,
showed that nothing approaching to the required quantity could
be drawn from that source. The Author, having previously
executed waterworks for the city of Halle, was applied to by the
town council to commence experiments with a view to supply
Dresden with naturally-filtered water taken from the banks of
the river. These experiments showed that a large number of
the subterranean watercourses on the slope of the Heath run into
tlie gravel of the Elbe valley, and continue their course under
the bed of the river. In the winter, while the Elbe was covered
with ice, a shaft 23 feet (7 metres) deep, and 5 feet (1-5 metre)
in diameter, was sunk in the adjacent bank, and about 660 gallons
(3 cubic metres) per minute were pumped out of it during
several weeks, so that the water level of the shaft became per-
manently 8 feet 2 inches (2* 5 metres) lower than that of the
river ; the former having a constant temperature of 47^ 7' Fahi-,
(7' Reaum.), and the latter of freezing point, though only a few feet
removed. This, and the fact tliat the chemical properties of tlio
two waters were materially different, showed that there was not
the slightest connection between them. Subsequent!}', when mains
had been put down, several portable engines, each woi-king two
centrifugal pumps, were set to work for several months, at a time

384

ABSTRACTS OP PAPEES IN

wlien tlie Elbe was unusually low. It was then found that the
quantity of water available was much greater than had been anti-
cipated, and the original project was consequently modified so as
to provide for a consumption of 11,000,000 gallons (50,000 cubic
metres) in twenty-four hours, being 55 gallons (250 litres) per head
for the two hundred thousand inhabitants. The water from both
sources, having been chemically examined, gave the following
results :

One Million
parts con-
tained
from

Total.

Organic

Matter.

Mineral

Matter.

Chlorides
soluble in
Alcohol.

Sulphates

soluble in

Water.

Carbonates

soluble in

Hydrochloric

Acid.

Total
Hard-
ness.

Perma-
nent

Hard-
ness.

Well
Eiver

82
104

per cent.
6= 7-3

23=221

per cent.
76 = 92-7

81 = 77-9

per cent.
7=8-5

6 = 5-8

percent.
18 = 22

17 = 16-3

per cent.
51 = 62-2 2°

58 = 55-8 2°-75

l°-9
2°-5

The M'ell water was limpid, colourless, and of pleasant taste ; it
underwent no change after standing a long time, and the liquid
had to be evaporated to one-fifth of its volume before the mineral
salts separated. There were no traces of ammonia or nitric acid.
The river water was opaque and yellow, leaving a heavy deposit
after standing, without losing its yellow colour or unpleasant
taste. After evaporation there remained a brown-yellow hygro-
scopic substance, which burned with difficulty and with a dis-
agreeable smell. Nitric acid was detected in large quantity, and
traces of ammonia were apparent. The comparison showed that
the Elbe water contained four times as much organic substance as
the well water, and that this organic matter was rich in nitrogen.

Between the steep right bank and the river there was a piece
of reclaimed land protected by a dam, and only flooded at high
water. Though covered with layers of slime, this consisted of
the purest gravel extending to the granite, a depth of 65i feet to
82 feet (20 metres to 25 metres), through which the subterranean
courses run almost parallel to the river. To intercept these, a
line of cast-iron asphalted pipes was laid on the right bank 6^ feet
(2 metres) under low-water mark. These pipes varied from 17-7
inches to 25-5 inches (0-45 metre to 0-65 metre) in diameter, and
were of the collective length of 4,718 feet. Tlaey were provided
with a number of slits, to facilitate the entrance of water, and
were surrounded by gravel, carefully sifted to the size of nuts
and peas, to prevent any smaller material from entering the pipes.
The pumping station was erected about the centre of this ' gallery.'
There were two collecting wells, each 23 feet (7 metres) in diameter,
and 16 feet 4 inches (5 metres) in depth under the river datum.
These wells Avere 131 feet (40 metres) apart, and were so connected
by pipes, that all the water could be collected in one well, while
the other was shut off. The wells were built of sandstone blocks

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 385

cemented watertight, on a strong wooden frame strengthened with
iron bolts, and gradually lowered to a sufficient depth, while
portable engines pumped out the water. The connecting pipes
were put in beforehand, so as to allow the water to commence to
flow immediately the wells had reached a sufficient depth. The
works were begun in the autiimn of 1871, and finished about .Tune
1874; they were frequently interrupted by the rising of the Elbe,
and arrangements had to be made for clearing everything out of
the way of the water within twenty-four hours.

The level of the water in the wells being 11^ feet (3-5 metres)
below the river datum, the pumps could not be erected more
than 9 feet 10 inches (3 metres) above that datum ; but as the Elbe
had been known to rise to 26 feet (8 metres) above this point, a
watertight area had to be constructed for the entire pumping
station. There are six steam-engines of Woolflfs horizontal pat-
tern, which can be used in pairs, or separately. The pumps
are horizontal and double-acting. The diameter of the smaller
cylinders is 20^ inches (0-52 metre), and of the larger 47 inches
(1-2 metre), with a length of stroke of 49 inches (1-25 metre).
The diameter of the pumps is 18.L inches (0-47 metre), each of
them delivering 82 gallons (0*372 cubic metre); the diameter of
the fly-wheel is 16 feet 4 inches (5 metres). There are six tubular
boilers, each with a heating surface of 1,453 square feet (135 square
metres), a diameter of 74 inches (1*88 metre), and a length of
81^ feet (5*65 metres).

A high-pressure reservoir is situated on the summit of the
Dresden Heath, at a distance of 1,312 yards (1,200 metres) from the
pumping station ; its highest water level being 196 feet 10 inches
above the river datum. It is rectangular in form, and is divided
into two equal parts, each half having an area of 2,356 square
yards (1,970 square metres), and at the greatest height of water,
16 feet 4 inches (5 metres), it has an aggregate capacity of 4,224,000
gallons (19,200 cubic metres). The bottom of this reservoir is of
concrete from 1 foot 11 inches to 2 feet 7 inches (0*6 metre to
0*8 metre) thick, on which is placed a single layer of brick in
cement; the sides, division wall, and transverse arches are of
sandstone. The pipe for conveying water from the pumping
station is 25 "o inches (0*65 metre) in diameter, while the town
mains are 29*5 inches, 23*6 inches, 17*7 inches (0*75 metre,
<)'60 metre, 0*45 metre) in diameter; those in the side street
being from 11-8 inches to 3-9 inches (30 centimetres to 10 centi-
metres).

At every 87 yards (80 metres) there are fire-cocks from which,
by means of hose, water may be thrown over the highest houses.
The mains are of cast iron, asphalted, and subjected to a pressure
of 12 atmospheres from within, and simultaneously to a series of
blows with sledge-hammers from without, after which they are
submitted to a pressure of 15 atmospheres. The entire network
represents a length of 70 English miles (18 German miles), and a

[1874-75. N.S.] 2 c

386 ABSTKACTS OF PAPERS IN

weight of nearly 10,000 tons. The cost is calculated at £385,012'
(2,566,750 thalers at 3s.), the particulars of which are :

£.

Tlialers.

Construction of wells

23,700

158,000

Pumping-station buildings

78,667

524,450

Engines

33,000

220,000

Keservoir

34,99.5

233,300

Piping ....

208,350

1,389,000

Other expeusesi

6,300

42,000

J. D.

Gas-holder Ex])Josions. By IIeur Sciiiele.

(Journal fiir Gasbeleuchtung, No. 13, 1874, pp. 468-479.)

At the last General Meeting of the Association of Gas and Watei
Engineers of Germany, Herr Schiele read a Paper describing a
remarkable explosion of a gas-holder at Coblentz. It had a
diameter of about 75^ feet (23 metres), was quite new, and had
never been used. When the tank had been about half filled with
water, the man-holes were closed to test the tightness of the upper
parts of the holder. This having been found satisfactory, gas was-
allowed to pass into the holder, so as to raise it still further out of
the water for the purpose of examining the joints in the lower
part. It was then determined to emjity the holder of the mix-
ture of air and gas which it contained; but whilst this was.
going on a violent explosion took place. The water in the tank
was dispersed in the form of fine rain, the holder was blown
into the air, the crown being completely torn away. A guide
roller was detached, and thrown to a distance of about 100 feet,
burying itself in the earth. One of the girders connecting the
upper ends of the columns was thrown down, and the holder,
which had turned over, fell partly in the tank, and partly on the
ground. The crown, with its internal bracing, had likewise exe-
cuted a summersault, and was crumpled up in a jiosition similar
to the other part of the holder. A strict investigation was made
as to the cause of the exj^losion, when, as it was ascertained
that no light was near, and all other theories being in the
Author's estimation inadmissible, he arrives at the conclusion that
it was due to the spontaneous combustion of a piece of oiled
waste accidentally dropped into the inlet pipe. The Paper con-
tains an elaborate discussion of the opinions of various authorities
as to the proportions of the mixtures of atmospheric air and gas
which are explosive, with a calculation of the probable compo-
sition of the gaseous contents of the holder in question at the-
moment of cxjilosion.

E. B. P.

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 387

Suhnerged Gas and Water Mains. By H. Janssen.

(Journal fiir Gasbeleuchtung, No. 14, 1874, pp. 495-503.)

In his introductory remarks the Antlioi", after mentioning
several projects for laj-ing mains, and the publications in which
the details are to be found, passes on to a particular account of
two siich mains at Berlin, one for conveying water across a canal
to supply the Zoological Gardens, the other to convey gas across the
River Spree. Both were executed by the firm of Oechelhaeuser.
The configuration of the main was in each case the same, con-
sisting of a central straight length, juit together with flange joints
and india-rubber or hemp packing, which rested in a shallow chan-
nel previously dredged in the bottom, with inclined branches at
each end following the slope of the banks. In the first case the
main was 105 feet (32 metres) in length, having a diameter of
15 "So inches (390 millimetres), with a thickness of f^r inch (8 milli-
niL'tres). 1'he central straight portion was in two lengths, which
were put together on the side of the canal, bends of the proper
angle to receive the shore lengths being attached at each end.
The ends haA-ing been plugged, the main was rolled into the canal,
when its buoyancy was sufficient to cause it to float ; but to
insure the mouths of the bends being presented upwards two casks
were attached at each end. The shore ends were suspended hori-
zontally from shears exactly over the spot they were intended
to occupy, and the central portion was floated into position across
the canal. One end of the main was now raised a little distance
out of the water, by a windlass fixed on a platform carried by two
barges, lashed together and kept in position by anchors and guy
ropes from the shore. At the same time the suspended shore
length was lowered to enable the joint to be made, the plug being
removed, and the main was then allowed to sink into the water.
The barges and platform being transferred to the opposite side of
the canal, the other end of the main was raised and connected
with the shore lengths as before. Water being pumped into the
tube, it was lowered gradually to the bottom.

The gas main across the Spree, from Charlottenburg to Moabit,
was laid in a somewhat similar manner. The total length was
259^^ feet (79-3 metres), with a diameter of 10^ inches (260 mil-
limetres), and a thickness of y\ inch (8 millimetres), the central
straight piece, which was in eight lengths, measuring 177^ feet
(54 metres). The bends served as collecting boxes for the products
of condensation deposited by the gas. This central length was
put together at the side of the river on floating stages, eacli con-
sisting of two casks lashed together, and the main was lowered
into position in the bed of the river by means of shears. Small
wrought-iron pipes were pushed down the main and introduced
into the collecting boxes, for removing the products of conden-
sation as circumstances should require.

R. B. P.
2 c 2

S88 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

Mosel-Saar Canal. By Here Knobloch.

(Deutsche Bauzeitung, No. 53, 1874, p. 214.)

Alsace-Lorraine is well provided witli canals, amongst which
are the Rhine-Marne canal, the Ehine-Rhone canal, the Saar Coal
canal, and the canalised Mosel. All these are State property,
free of tolls. Before the province was added to the German em-
pire, the Government intended to complete the network, by con-
structing a side canal from Strasburg to the Ehine, by continuing
the Mosel canalisation from Frouard to Metz and Diedenhofen, and
by connecting Metz by canal with the Saar at Saarbruck. The
war interrupted the proceedings ; but immediately after its termi-
nation the new Government ordered the preparatory work to be
commenced. The existing canal from Saarbruck to Metz is 125i^
miles (202 kilometres) long, the projected canal only 41 miles
(66 kilometres) ; and, as the present canal passes through French
territory, shipping may be subject to difficulties, an additional
reason why its completion is eagerly desired. It vrill be used
chiefly for the transport of coal from the rich Saarbruck mines,
and the mineral and agricultural products of Alsace-Lorraine.
The preparatory works were begun in December 1872, and are
approaching completion.

The great question was how to supply the canal with water.
The French engineers before the war had decided to pump the
water from the Mosel into it, the difference of level at the highest
point being 151 feet (46 metres). As the canal would cross the
drainage of three brooks, with large watersheds, it was surmised
that, at the lowest watermark, these three brooks would afford an
adequate supply in summer calculated at 21 • 18 cubic feet (0*6 cubic
metre), and throughout the year at 10*59 cubic feet (0"3 cubic
metre) per second. By gauging these brooks at diiferent points,
it was found that at low water they would contribute more than
the maximum required by the canal, and the possibility of construc-
tion on this principle was plainly shown. The canal commences
in the harbour of the canalised Mosel at Metz, and will reach the
summit of the Mosel and Kied watershed, 46 metres higher, by
eighteen locks of 8.V feet (2-6 metres) fall each, and continue through
the Nied valley for 25 miles (40 kilometres). At Teterchen it
crosses the watershed between the Nied and Bist in a tunnel of J
2 miles 142 yards (3*35 kilometres), and from the mouth of the
tunnel will decline into the Bist valley by sixteen locks, joining
the Saar 10^ miles below Saarbruck. There will be an aqueduct ■
of stone and iron 98^ feet (30 metres) in width. A railway is
carried across the canal twice. The total cost will be about
£900,000 (6,000,000 thalers).

J. D. L.

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 389

Gravelle Loch on the St. Maurice Canal. By M, Dardaut.

(Annales du Geuie Civil, Xos. 8 & 11, 20 pp., 2 pi.) ;

The St. Maurice canal connects the St. Maur canal with the
Seine below Charenton, and the Gravelle lock is situated about
328 yards (300 metres) from the junction. The fall of water
at the lock is 9 feet 4^ inches (2*86 metres). The depth of
water in the reach above the lock is 8 feet (2-45 metres), but only
5^ feet (1 • 6 metre) below it ; the slopes of the banks are 2 to 1, and
the bottom width is 49 feet (lo metres). The boats employed
on the navigation, are flat-bottomed, 147 feet (45 metres) long,
24^ feet (7*4 metres) broad, their greatest draught being 4^ feet
(1*4 metre). An aqueduct passes under the upper entrance of
the lock, leading water from the Marne for turning two mills on
the right bank of the canal, and an iron bridge crosses the lower
entrance.

The distance from the line of the upper return walls to the
point of the head cill is 44 feet (13 "4 metres); between the
gates 167^ feet (51 metres), and from the point of the tail cill
to the line of the loAver return walls 37 feet (11 "3 metres).
The projection of the point of the cills is 4 feet 11 inches
( 1 • 5 metre), and the distance of the point of the head cill from
the lift wall is 5 feet 10 inches (1*78 metre). The width of the
lock is 25 feet 7 inches (7-8 metres). The depths from the
coping of the side walls are as follows : to the upper gate
floor 19 feet \\ inch (5*83 metres); to the head cill 18 feet
1^ inch (5 • 53 metres) ; to the springing of the invert 22 feet
8 inches (6 '93 metres); to the bottom of the invert 23 feet 6^
inches (7*18 metres), and to the lower gate floor 23 feet 10 inches
(7*26 metres). The face of the retaining wall at the back of the
upper cill is a concave arc whose versed sine is 3 feet 4 inches
(1*02 metre). The side walls of the lock chamber are 9.^ feet
(2-9 metres) wide at the bottom, and 7 feet 10^ inches (2*4
metres) at the top. The thickness of the invert is 6^ feet (2
metres) at the springing, and 5^ feet (1 ' 75 metre) in the centre ;
the upper gate floor is 12 feet 1^ inch (3*7 metres) thick, and
the lower 5i feet (1*67 metre).

The foundations of the lock consist of a layer of concrete,
averaging about 3| feet (1"15 metre) in depth, inclosed by stakes
and boards, and resting upon a clay bed consolidated by stakes
driven down about 3;^ feet (1 metre), and If foot (0*5 metre) apart.
There are stone aprons at each extremity of the lock, extending
slightly beyond the return walls and terminated with radiating
quoins If foot (O'o metre) deep. The top of the retaining wall at
the back of the upper cill is constructed with ashlar quoins, radia-
ting to the curve of the face, from 1.^ foot to 2^ feet (0-4 to 0-7
metre) thick : the tail cill is also of radiated ashlar of similar
thickness. The walls are in courses, with bonded ashlar masonry
at the quoins. The coping, in general, is 3^ feet (1 metre) wide.

390 ABSTRACTS OP PAPERS IN

with paving behind If foot (0-5 metre) in width : the quays have
a slope from the walls of 1 in 74.

The aqueduct, where it passes under the lock and side walls,
consists of a segmental arch resting upon piers 26^ feet (8 metres)
apart, and 3J feet (1 metre) high, with a concrete invert below ;
the rise of the arch is 5^ feet (1 • 6 metre), and its thickness at
the crown 3^ feet (1 metre). The arch of the aqueduct, on either
side of the lock, is semicircular, and the piers are 8^^ feet (2-6
metres) high. The total length of the covered aqueduct is 119^
feet (36 '4 metres).

L. Y. H.

Damming of the Chelif. By M. Lamairesse.

(Anuales dcs Fonts et CliaussLes, June 1874-, pp. 569-622, 2 pi.)

The Cheliff, which rises above Amourah in Algeria, and flows
into the Mediterranean at Mostaganem, has been dammed across,
where it passes through a narrow defile above Orleansville, to
provide for the irrigation of 29,652 acres (12,000 hectares), and it
is expected that 19,768 acres (8,000 hectares) above the dam will
become capable of being cheaply irrigated, owing to the impounded
water raising the subterranean springs in the alluvial plains along
the upper portion of the river. The discharge of the Cheliif at
that point is never less than 330 gallons (1,500 litres) per second ;
it averages about 1,760 cubic feet (50 cubic metres) in winter, and
reaches 38,800 cubic feet (1,100 cubic metres) during excessive
floods. The bottom of the culvert for conveying the water is

7 feet 2^ inches (2 • 2 metres) below the top of the weir, which is
38 feet 6i inches (11*75 metres) above the bed of the river; and
thence a conduit, capable of discharging 1,760 gallons (8,000 litres),
brings the water to the upper part of Orleansville with a uniform
fall of 1 in 3,030. The backwater of the dam, when the water is
level with the top of the weir, extends to a distance of 6j miles
(10 kilometres), but a rise of 13 feet (4 metres) over the weir
would not cause any damage up the river. The water retained
between the bottom of the culvert and the top of the weir amounts
to upwards of 176,600,000 cubic feet (5,000,000 cubic metres).
The front of the weir is concave, with a versed sine of 18 feet

8 inches (5 ' 7 metres) at the top ; the distance between the side
walls being 276 feet (84*2 metres) at the top of the weir, and
190 feet (58 metres) at the bottom. The back of the dam has a
batter of 1 in 20 ; the front, of ashlar masonry, was commenced
with a batter of 1 in 2, but as the overflowing water injured the
foot of the dam the design was altered, the face being made with
a batter of 1 in 3 for the upper 17^ feet (5*25 metres), followed
by a slope 19i feet (5*94 metres) long, with an inclination of
2-15 to 1, and then a batter of 1 in 3 again to the bottom; tho
fall of the water is thus broken by the slope, which in the worst
floods it has not overshot.

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 391

The dam is 8 feet 2^ inches (2 "5 metres) wide at the top,
^nd 38 feet 9^ inches (11 -So metres) at the bottom, which is
wider than stability requires ; and spaces woukl have been left
in the interior had the masonry been less advanced when the
<lesign was modified. Two discharge outlets are situated in the
dam near the left side, each 4 feet 11 inches (1"5 metre) wide,
and 7 feet 4k inches (2 "25 meti-es) high, their cills being 9 feet
(2 • 75 metres) below the top of the weir. There is also a bottom
sluice, the cill of which is 34 feet 7 inches (10- 55 metres) below
the top of the weir, and 4 J feet (1 • 45 metre) wide ; it was used
during construction in drawing off the water on the upper side
■of the dam in the dry season, and also in keeping the water from
overflowing the weir whilst repairs were being executed in front
•of it. The sluice would have been more serviceable if it had been
larger. The culvert for conveying the water supply is built in
the left side wall ; its section is the segment of a circle of
4^ feet (1 • 3 metre) radius, and it is 7^ feet (2 • 3 metres) high.
The dam, commenced in 18(38, was executed in two portions, coffer-
dams being constructed from each bank consecutively; the river
being allowed to flow over the one half, and through a gap in
the centre, whilst the other half was being raised.

The foundations, supposed at first to be rock, proved eventually
to consist of varieties of clays, marls, sandstones and limestones ;
this great diversity of formation is due to a considerable dip in the
thin strata which form the river bed. The floods washed away
portions of the dam during construction; and after it was completed,
in 1870, it became necessary to underpin the foundations, and to
repair the platform on the river bed below. This platform had
been made with pitching, and with a counter dike about 33 feet (10
metres) from the dam, thus forming a basin of water, which wjis
4 feet (1*2 metre) in depth, for checking the shock of the water
falling over the dam. It was found that the rubble platform,
beyond the dike, had been destroyed ; the falling water had com-
municated its motion to the water in the basin, which proved too
short ; the water had then undermined and washed away portions
of the dike ; it had next worked under the pitching which formed
the bottom of the basin ; and, lastly, had commenced to undermine
the dam and side walls.

The foundations of the dam and side walls were carried deeper,
and the new platform was built on a lower and more solid founda-
tion, below any possible scour. It was formed of pitching and con-
crete, and was protected near the dam with concrete blocks. The
dike was abandoned, and the platform prolonged with a gradual
rise, forming a basin 164 feet (50 metres) long. This basin and
the modified dam have not sustained any serious damage.

The best platform below a dam would be a solid and smooth one,
with ,a gentle slope, followed by a platform almost horizontal ;
but when circumstances do not admit of this, a basin as formed in
ihe present case is the best substitute.

L. V. H.

392 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

Beconstrudion of the Chdteau-Gontier Bridge. By M. Legras,

(Annales des Fonts et Chaussees, March 1874, pp. 227-246, 1 pi.)

The original bridge at Chateau-Gontier, over the river Mayenne,
on the high road to Caen, having been destroyed for strategical
purposes on the 17 th of January, 1871, the structure was rebuilt
with slightly different dimensions, and opened for traffic on the I6tli
of November, 1872. As it was the only bridge connecting the two^
banks of the Mayenne for a distance of 30 miles (50 kilometres),
communication Avas in the meanwhile established by a bridge
of boats, completed in forty-eight hours, in spite of most un-
favourable circumstances arising from a packing of ice, accom-
panied by a considerable flood. The rise of the river during
floods rarely amounting to 4 feet 1 inch (1 • 25 metre), the level of
the platform of the bridge was fixed at about that height above
the level of low water. The site chosen was a short distance below
the destroyed bridge, where the river has a width of 60 yards
(54 "65 metres). Of the six boats one measured about 100 tons,
three 60, 50, and 40 tons, and two smaller ones of 20 and 25 tons
were coupled together. The structure consisted of six spans, varj'--
ing in length from 20 feet 4 inches (6-2 metres) to 14 feet 9 inches
(4 '8 metres), on account of the different displacements afforded
by the boats. The platform was constructed with a small camber
up stream, the better to resist the force of the current. It had a
width of 18 feet 5 inches (5*62 metres), and consisted of a footway
for passengers and a roadway for a single line of vehicles. To
prevent the stoppage of the navigation, it was necessary to make
arrangements for the opening of one span of the bridge : this-
was effected by a framework of two transverse timbers 3 inches
by 8 inches (^ metre), laid flat, of a length rather greater than
the width of the bridge, and placed parallel to the bank. To
these two timbers six longitudinals 7 inches by 12 inches
(^y.3j metre), were bolted at intervals equal to those of the six
bridge longitudinals. A hole was then bored in a horizontal line
through all the twelve to receive a 2-inch (0 • 05 metre) pin, forming-
the axis about which the lifting span moved. The framework
being ballasted and planked over, the platform at the other end of
the span was sawn across, and means afforded for raising it by
tackles Avorked from the shore.

'J'he ruined bridge, of which only the walls of the abutments
and the foundations remained intact, consisted of three segmental
arches of 49 feet 3 inches (15 metres) clear span, and 6 feet 9 inches.
(2 • 06 metres) rise, supported on two piers 6 feet 7 inches (2 metres)
in width, and two abutments of a depth of 21 feet 4 inches (6*5
metres). The old bridge having afforded an insufficient passage,
both in width and height, for boats during floods, it was re-
solved to increase the waterway by 26 feet 3 inches (8 metres),
divided equally betAveen the three spans. The springing of the

FOREIGN TK-ANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 393

arches being fixed at the same level as before, the old materials
could be employed, and the original curve of the intrados was
merely produced to suit the increased span, thus raising the crown
3 feet (0*9 metre). A corresponding rise in the crown of the
extrados could not have been carried out without rendering the
approaches almost impracticable, but by reducing the thickness of
the arch at this part, and also that of the road material, the
additional rise of the roadway was reduced to 1 foot 1 inch (0 • 3o
metre).

In consequence of the new arrangement, the foundations of the
piers had to be placed 4 feet 4 inches (1*33 metre) nearer the
banks, and the abutments were put back 13 feet Ih inch (-t metres).
Thus the new foundations had a part in common with the old,
which gives a certain amoiint of interest to the method adopted
in their reconstruction. The old abutments which remained
were 21 feet 4 inches (6*5 metres) thick at the springing of
the arch, of which 8 feet 2^ inches (2 "5 metres) could be utilised
in the new abutments. Kow an abutment is required at the same
time to support the weight of the adjacent semi-arch and to resist
the horizontal thrust. The old work afforded an incompressible
support sufficiently large to carry the weight of the semi-arch and
prevent vertical settlement, while the new part, though it might
settle under its own weight, would not, in so doing, diminish the
resistance to the horizontal thrust of the entire abutment. On
account of the inevitable settlement, the new masonry was not
bonded into the old, but a space of f inch (0*01 metre), filled
with mortar, was left between them. The lengthening of the
back of the abutments was carried out during the low water in
1871. On the left bank the foundation of masonry was built
on the rock, with the aid of pumping ; on the right bank
the rock was covered by a bed of compact gravel o feet
(1*5 metre) thick, which the quay walls and old abutment
prevented from being undermined, and upon which a bed of
concrete 4 feet (1*2 metre) in thickness was placed, carrying
the masonry. The new piers having to be built 4 feet 4 inches
(1*3 metre) nearer the banks, to some extent coincided with the
old ones, the foundations of which were standi ns;. It was in-
tended to remove the portion common to both, in order to insure
equal settlement, by means of a cofferdam built partly on the con-
crete of the old foundations, and partly on piles driven into the
bed of the river ; but the dam, proving unequal to resist a head
of 13 or 16 feet (4 or 5 metres) of water during the winter floods,
had to be abandoned. The foundations were then laid in con-
crete, consisting of 1 part of pure hydraulic lime to 2 parts
of ballast, lowered to the bottom by means of boxes opening at
the lower side. The centrings were struck simultaneously and
gradually fourteen days after the closing of the arches. The
settlement was 4^, 4|, and 3| inches (0 • 125, 0 • 11, and 0 • 09 metre),.
in the right, middle, and left arches respectively.

594 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

C!oST OF THE WOKK.

£ Francs.

Clearing and foundations 1,860 46,500

Eeconstruction 3,340 83,500

Total 5,200 130,000

Extra cost for laying the foundations of the

piers in winter 1,800 45,000

7,000 175,000

The cost per lineal yard, £111 6s. ; or 3,070 francs per lineal metre.
. „ per square foot of platform, £1 Os. Qd. ; or per square metre, 279 francs,

A. T. A.

Traversing Bridge for crossing the Harhour entrance letween
S. Malo and S. Servan. By M. Floucaud de Fourcroy.

(Annales des Fonts et Chaussees, July 1874, pp. 5-17, 2 pi.)

The towns of S. Malo and S. Servan stand on either side of a
large inner harhour, which it was intended at one time to convert
into a floating hasin. Works for this purpose were authorised in
1836, but have never been completed. The harbour now commu-
nicates with the sea by five sluices, two locks (which have
never been fitted with gates), and an entrance 328 feet wide
(100 metres), the bottom of which is about 34 feet (10*4 metres)
below the level of equinoctial springs. At spring tides this bottom
is dry on the ebb for several hours, but at neaps it is always
■covered. The great rise of tides in this locality produces strong
currents through the entrance at ebb and flow.

Until recently the only means of crossing this entrance was by
boats when the water was in, or at low-water spring tides by
traversing a sort of causeway, formed by the foundations laid for
the inner wall of the dam intended to be thrown across the mouth
■of the harbour. Flights of steps were placed at each side to faci-
litate this passage, which was, however, inconvenient, and pro-
ductive of accidents.

Under these circumstances, M. Leroyer, architect, of S. Servan,
obtained leave, in 1873, to construct for this passage what may be
termed a ' traversing bridge,' since its principle more nearly re-
sembles that of a railway traverser than any other structure. In.
outward appearance it is somev/hat like the elevated tanks at
railway stations. It consists of a platform raised to a height of
36 feet (11 metres) on four columns of wrought iron. These rest
on a frame, carried on four wheels, which run on a line of rails
across the bed of the harbour. The platform is thus on a level
with the quays at each end, so that the passengers have simply
to step from one to the other. When not in use, the bridge stands
in a recess, oiit of the way of the shipping, on the S. Malo side ;

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 395

and it is moved "by chains attached to the lower frame or truck,
and lying on the bottom, so as to offer no impediment to the
navigation.

The Vignolcs' rails used for the road are 77 lbs. to the yard
(38 kilogrammes per metre), resting on longitudinal and cross
sleepers bedded in large stones or concrete. The bottoms of the
rails are raised about 2 inches (0 • 05 metre) above the sleepers by
occasiunal packing pieces, thus permitting the water to run
underneath them and to wash away any accumulation of sand.
This plan has hitherto proved successful. The gauge is 15 feet
(4*6 metres). The platform of the bridge is about 23 feet by 20
feet (7 metres by 6 metres), supported by four pillars of wrought
iron, spaced 13 feet (4 metres) apart, and 4 inches (0*1 metre)
in diameter. These pillars are stiffened by cross and diagonal
bracing at each of the sides, and horizontally at the middle. The
wheels of the truck are 3 feet 3 inches (1 metre) in diameter, and
are inclosed in a casing of sheet iron, brought to a point at each
end, to diminish the fluid resistance. The total weight of the
bridge is 13-8 tons (14,000 kilogrammes), and the immersed section,
perpendicular to the direction of motion, is only 59 • 1 square feet,
■even taking in the area of all four pillars.

Motion was at first intended to be given by a machine on the
bridge itself; but as this plan would have seriously increased
the dead weight, it was abandoned for the following : — A chain
attached to the southern end of the truck, after passing under
a vertical pulley at the foot of the paved slope which forms the
boundary on the S. Servan side, is wound on a horizontal drum
fixed at the top of this slope. Another chain attached to the
northern end of the truck, passes round a horizontal pulley at the
8. Malo end, returns under the truck, and, after passing over a
vertical pulley at the S. Servan end, like the first rope, is wound
in the opposite direction round another drum carried on the same
shaft. This shaft also carries three pulleys, placed side by side, of
which the middle only is keyed on, the other two running loose.
The loose pulleys carry two belts, one of them crossed, which at
the other end pass round a drum upon the crank shaft of a steam-
engine. It is evident that by simply shifting one or other of these
belts from the loose to the fixed pulley, the chain drum is made
to revolve in one or the other direction, and the bridge advances
or retires accordingly.

An attempt was made to employ self-acting mechanism for
shifting the belt off the fixed pulley at the end of the bridge's
travel, there being a danger that if this were at any time neglected
by the workman in charge, the bridge would be brought violently
up against the pier which it was approaching. This was, how-
ever, abandoned, because, as the bridge was sometimes out of water,
sometimes immersed, sometimes heavily and sometimes lightly
laden, it was found requisite to shift the belt (and so take off the
traction) earlier in some cases than in others; moreover, the
passing of a vessel, or other causes, sumetinies rendered it necessary

396 ■' ABSTRACTS OF PAPEES IN

to stop or reverse the motion in the middle of the travel. In place
of this, therefore, a system of signals was introduced, by means of
a trumpet similar to that occasionally used at the level crossings of
railways. The possibility of a heavy shock is provided against
by short landing stages at each end, which, by means of a counter-
weight, act as springs, closing in towards the pier when struck
by the bridge, and returning to their former position when the
bridge starts on its next trip. The amount of movement given to
these is 3 feet 3 inches (1 metre).

Before being set to work, the bridge was subjected to careful tests.
A weight of about 6 tons (6,000 kilogrammes) was left on the
platform for twenty-four hours. The bridge was moved under this
load, and afterwards under half the load, placed on one side
and partly overhanging the wheels. The stiffness and stability
were found to be perfectly satisfactory. The bridge was then
put to work; but it was necessary to replace the steam-engine,
which was of 6 HP., by one of 10 HP., and also to substitute
wrought-iron for cast-iron wheels, the latter having in one month
worn down to a depth of about f inch (0-015 metre). With
these alterations the bridge worked well, and has continued to do
so. The time of transit is generally from l-^^ minute to 2 minutes,
giving a maximum speed of about 2 miles an hour. No diffi-
culty has arisen from bad weather; and the bridge is largely
used by the inhabitants of the two towns. From an account kept
between December 2nd, 1873, and January 11th, 1874, it appeared
that the average number of passengers was 1,832 per diem. The
fare is one halfpenny (5 centimes), and it is calculated that a
daily total of 1,400 passengers will pay all the expenses of main-
tenance, and form a depreciation fund, providing for the renewal
of the plant within ten years ; so that the enteiprise would appear
to be commercially as well as mechanically successful.

W. E. B.

TJie Harhour of Spezzia.

Eeport by M. Mat^DINI, Deputy of the Italian Parliament and Reporter of
the Commission on the Defences of Spezzia. Extract by E. Delacroix.

(Revue Maritime et Coloniale, March 1874, pp. 880-897, 1 pi.)

The gulf of Spezzia, on the north-western shores of Italy,
lies in a fork of the Apennines from S.E. to N.W., and near
the boundary which divides Liguria from Tuscany proper. Its
entrance, from a maritime point of view, lies between the small
island of Tino on the west, and Cape Corvo on the east, and
is 5^ miles (S^ kilometres) broad. Between these points a
sand bank, covered by 9^- fathoms (17 metres) of water, forms a
l»reakwater against large sea waves; and from this line the gulf
has a length of 6i miles (10 kilometres). The bay of Porto-

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS, 3'.) 7

Yencrc has an area of 321 acres (1,300,000 square metres), can
receive ships of all sizes, and is now used as a harbour of refuge
against westerly winds. The narrow passage to the westward
between it and the isle of Palmaria is very shallow, being only
9| feet (3 metres) deep, and large waves from the west cannot tra-
verse it. The little bay of Castagna is about 40 acres (160,000
square metres), and can receive the largest ships. The bay of
Varignano has an area of 25 acres (100,000 square metres), that of
Grazie 60 acres (2-10,000 square metres), and of Panigaglia 100 acres
(400,000 square metres). The toAvn of Spezzia is at the extremity
of the giilf, near the centre. On the eastern side is the bay or gulf
of Lerica, which in some parts has sufficient dej)th to allow of the
largest ships of war being moored.

The superficies of the gulf is about 2,224 acres (9,000,000
square metres), and its depth permits of vessels anchoring at
almost any part, even on the submarine bank in the middle of
the entrance of the gulf. The bottom generally is mud, except
in the neighbourhood of La Scola, and of the point Castagna,
where it is rocky ; there is seaweed in the bay of Santa-Teresa,
and sand at several points near the town of Spezzia. Ships usually
anchor on the west of the gulf, where the bays are commodious.
A high road leads from Porto- Venere to Spezzia, which was con-
structed b}' order of Napoleon the First. The arsenal between San-
Vito and Spezia covers 222 acres (900,000 square metres), viz.:
46 • 25 (187,000) for wet docks and basins ; 3 • 6 (14,600) for building
slips ; 1 • 38 (5,600) for buildings and workshops ; 158-64 (642,000)
for esplanades, roads, and land, comprised in the original project,
but of which the destination has not yet been assigned. Outside
the wall on the north are the barracks and the hospital, covering
together about 2 acres (7,800 square metres). In the bay of San-
Vito, near the arsenal, are the offices and stores for the naval artil-
lery, and ponds for the preservation of timber. This establish-
ment covers 15 acres (60,000 square metres). On the opposite side
of the gulf of Spezzia, near San-Bartolomeo, there is a dockyard
which covers 30 acres (120,000 square metres), containing two
building slips, one for hauling up vessels, a small wet dock, offices,
stores, &c. It is connected with the arsenal by two roads, one fit for
carriages, and the other supplied with rails. In the bay of Fezzano
there is a yard for the repair of dredging machines.

For 20 miles to the west of Spezzia the coast is so rocky and
abnipt that disembarkation is impossible. On the east, however,
near the mouth of the Magra, this is practicable, but the jMagra
itself is not navigable.

Many proposals have been made for the naval defences of the
gulf, mostly based upon the necessity of a ' digue ' or mole, slightly
submerged, extending nearly across the gulf, and having forts upon
it to guard the passage at each end, supported by forts on shore.
A commission appointed by the Chamber to examine these, pro-
nounced in favour of a mole between Santa-Maria and Santa-
Teresa, the immediate construction of which was recommended.

398 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

For the present the gnlf of Spezzia will be defended by twenty-
six forts or batteries carrying 278 guns. Eight of these works will
be armour-plated, and will combine with the mole in prevent-
ing an enemy's fleet from forcing an entrance or bombarding
the arsenal.

^\. J.

Evaporation in Steam Boilers decreasing in Geometrical
Progression. By M. Paul Havrez.

(Annales du Genie Civil, August and September 1874, 29 pp.)

M. Havrez commences with a reference to the well-known expe-
riments of Mr. C. W. Williams on the evaporative power of
a locomotive boiler divided transversely into several distinct
sections, to show the rate of evaporation of the fire-box and of each
section of the flue tubes successively, as they recede from the fire-
box. He refers also to the experiments of Mr. John Graham, near
Manchester, and, finally, to the observations of M. Petiet and the
Engineers of the Northern railway of France, on the evaporative
value of the different parts of a locomotive boiler divided into five
compartments. In these experiments the first compartment com-
prised the fire-box, having 60*28 square feet of surface (5-6 square
metres), and 16-15 square feet of tube surface (1*5 square
metre). The tubes were divided into four other compartments,
each of them 3-02 feet long (0'92 metre), with 179 square feet of
surface (16 - 62 square metres). Each compartment held 70-}t gallons
of water (320 litres), and was fed from a gauged tank by a special
pximp. The levels were maintained strictly uniform. The mean
of fifteen experiments, of which seven were made with coke as fuel,
and eight with briquettes, gave the following results of evapo-
ration.

The quantities of water evaporated per hour with coke were, for
the—

Fire-box Isttube
section. section.
24-5 8-72
or, 119-G 42-6

2nd tube
section.
4-42
21-6

3rd tube
section.

2-52
12-3

4th (nbe
section.

1-68

8-2

lb.s. per sq. foot,
kilogrs. per sq. metre ;

and with briquettes —

36-9 11-44 "
or, 180-25 55-85

5-72
27-92

3-52
17-18

2-31
11-3

lbs. per sq. foot,
kilogrs. per sq. metre.

These results confirm the fact, already established by Williams
and by Graham, that the evaporative performance of the tube-
surface decreases rapidly with the distance from the fire-box.

The Author establishes, by careful analysis of experimental data,
the following law : — The quantities of water, evaporated by con-
secutive equal lengths of tubes, decrease in geometrical progression,
whilst the distances from the commencement of the series increase
in arithmetical progression. From which it follows that the ratio

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND I'ERIODICALS. 39^

"between tlic quantities of -water evaporated by consecutive equal
lengths is a constant number, N. These ratios are expressed hy
the equation,

Ql = Qo N%

in which Qi, is the quantity of water evaporated by the (L -|- 1)
length, that evaporated by the first length being = Qo-

The point at which this law begins to prevail, is that at which the-
radiation of heat from the fuel ceases, and heat is communicated by
conduction alone ; and it appears from the observations cited, that
in locomotive-boilers, the evaporation diminishes by nearl}' one-half
at each interval from metre to metre [say, one-half from yard to
yard]. The value of N in the above formula, according to the
ratio of one-half would be = 0 • 5. For large boilers, the Aiithor con-
cludes that the value of N varies between 0-5 and 0-7 for the rela-
tive decrease of evaporation from metre to metre ; but that for small
boilers, and small quantities of hot gases, the value may fall
below 0"5.

D. K. C.

Surface Condensers. By M. Audexet.

(Rovue Maritime et Coloniale, May 1874, pp. 509-540.)

Eeferring to the economy of fuel, from 15 to 20 per cent.,,
eft'ected by the substitution of surface condensers for injection
condensers, M. Audenet calculates that, though the power required
to work the air pump is to a great extent economised by the use
of surface condensers, yet from the fact that the resistance of the
air pump does not exceed 0*0024 HP. per horse-power of the
engine, no great economy is jDOssible in that direction. Moreover,
towards the end of the Paper, he shows that the ordinary con-
struction of surface condensers offers so great a resistance to the-
circulation of the condensing water, that the power required to put
that water in motion more than counterbalances any saving in
the expenditiare for the air pump. The point of practical im-
portance in the consideration of the surface condenser, is to deter-
mine the relation between the cooling surface, the volume of water in
circulation, and the quantity of steam to be condensed and brought
down to any desired temperature. In addition to this, it is main-
tained that, to effect a rapid reduction of pressure in the cylinder,
it is necessary above all to provide a quick exhaust, together with
a condenser of great capacity, by the mere volume of which the
steam when exhausted into it is considerably reduced in pressure,
independently of the fall of pressure effected by condensation.

Quoting the results of observations to show that the temperature
in the condenser is practically constant, the Author assumes that
1 kilogramme of the steam to be condensed contains 630 ' calories,'
equivalent to 1,134 English units of heat by 1 lb. of steam.
Adopting English measure, let k = the co-efficient of conducti-

400 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

liility of the tubes of the condenser, that is the number of heat
units which pass through the sides of the tubes per square foot
per hour, for a difference of temjjerature of 1° Fahr. ; t, the
temperature of condensation, Q and 0' the temperatures of the con-
densing water as it enters and as it leaves the condenser ; tt, the
weight of condensing water in pounds exj^ended per hour ; and s,
the area of condensing surface in square feet, then the following-
equation is evolved : —

1134 -f
lSTr = ^--^{hs^7v) (a)

the variables k, s, and m being the ordinates of an equilateral
hyperbola, of which the equation referred to the asymptotes
would be,

/1134-r

kSTT =

\ t - e

and of which the co-ordinates would be transferred, parallel to
themselves, to the apex of one of the branches.

In settling the value of the co-efiBcient Jc, the Author quotes the
results of experiments made by Thomas and Laureus, by means of
a copper worm, in which the value of Jc, for the square metre, and
for 1° centigrade, amounted to fi-om 4,800 to 5,000 French units ;
equivalent, for an English square foot, and 1° Fahr., to about
1,000 English units. From observations, however, made on the
surface condensers on board the transport ship " Dives," he esti-
mates the value of h = 500 units in English measures (in French
measures 2,500 ' calories ').^

The value of the co-efficient is affected by the arrangements for
effecting the circulation of the water through the condenser ; but
it is considered that the co-efficient deduced from the observations
on board the " Dives" is sufficiently exact for practical purposes,
for condensers arranged, like those of the " Dives," in which the
tubes are in three groups, successivel}'" traversed by the water.
For condensers in which the tubes are divided into only two
groups the co-efficient is much less. In the condensers of the
" Eochambeau," for example, having the tubes in two groups, the
co-efficient scarcely amounted to from 220 to 240 English units
(1,100 to 1,200 ' calories,' French measure).

The value of the co-efficient is no doubt diminished by the
deposits of fatty matter discharged from the cylinders and valves.
The co-efficient of 500 units for the " Dives " was deduced from
observations when the engines were new. But it is known that
in the transatlantic steamers, fitted with surface condensers, the
vacuum is diminished by from 1 • 2 to 2 • 4 inches (3 to 6 centimetres)
during the voyage to America and back. The Author suggests a

* Information bearing on tliis subject will be found in Pe'clct's " Traite' de la
Chaleur," as well as in the Minutes of Proceedings Inst. C.E., vol. xxxv., pp.55
and 94.

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 401

species of trap to be placed at the entrance from the exhaust pipe
to the condenser, for the interception of the greasy impurities.

Aocordincf to the algebraic relations established by the for-
mula (a), when the temperature of the condensing water is given,
and also the temperature of condensation to be attained, the values
of the condensing surfiice and the quantity of water may be varied
indefinitely. The Author represents the relations of the surface
and the water graphically, for the cases in which the temperature
of the sea-water, 6, is 59^ F. (15'' C), that of condensation, t, being
successively 95^ 104^ and 113° F. (35°, 40°, 45° C). The abscissae
of the curves represent the areas of the condensing surfaces, and
the ordinates the volumes of water required to produce the steam
supplied per hour per square metre of fire grate, on the assumption
that 750 kilogrammes of steam are generated, with good coal, per
square metre of grate per hour (153|j lbs. of steam per square foot
of grate). For this an evaporation is assumed of 8 • 3 lbs. of water
per pound of coal (8 • 3 kilogrammes per kilogramme of coal) ;
90 kilogrammes of coal being consumed per square metre per hour
(18-5 lbs. per square foot). The data from which the relations of
the grate area and the condensing water have been deduced are
contained in the annexed Table. From these, in connection with
the diagrams, it appears that the sea-water being at 59° F. (15° C),
the condensation must have been effected at about 98^° or 107i° F.
(37° or 42° C).

The diameter of the condensing tubes is generally from 0 • 76 to
O'B inch (19 to 20 millimetres); and they are pitched at from
l"2to 1*4 inch (30 to 35 millimetres). It follows, from the fact
of the small variation of these dimensions, that the cubic con-
tents of the condensers bear a ratio to the condensing surface, vary-
ing only from 0 • 1 to 0 • 131 cubic foot per square foot (0*03 to 0 • 04
cubic metre per square metre), according to the examples given in
the Table on page 402.

From this Table it appears also that the weight of the condenser
per unit of surface varies from 8^ to 13 lbs. j^er square foot of
surface (41 to 64 kilogrammes per square metre). Adding about
1 • 64 lb. per square foot (8 kilogrammes per square metre) for
the water in the tubes, the Author comes to the conclusion that a
properly constructed surface condenser should weigh, water in-
cluded, about 101 lbs, per square foot of condensing surface (50
kilogrammes per square metre).

To show what proportion the weight of the surface condenser
bears to the weight of the entire engine, and how this projiortion
will vary with the quantity of water used, the following calcu-
lations have been made, in which the co-efficient 7c is taken at 500
English units (2,500 ' calories,' French measure), the temperature of
condensation is assumed to be 104° F. (40° C), and the condensing
water at 59° F. (15° C). The area of surface per indicated horse-
power is added, it being assumed that 17*64 lbs. (8 kilo-
grammes) of steam only is consumed in a very good engine per
horse-power per hour.

[1874-75. N.S.] 2 D

402

ABSTRACTS OF PAPEES IN

Table sliowing the relation of CoisToensing Water to Geate-area in

JMarine Engines.

Name of Vessel.

Suffren

Eocliambeau

Infernet, &c.

Eesolue

Dives, Eance

Petrel, Ante
lope .

Hercules .

Martinique

Tourville .

City of London
Chimborazo
Aracan
Indus .
Garonne .

Constructor.

Indret .
American
Indret .
Claparede
Indret .

Creusot .

Penn

Elder .

Forges et "J
Chantiers )

Elder

ditto
Denny

ditto
Napier

Grate-
area of

the
Boilers.

square
feet.
637-2

1042-0

261-6

86-5

87-2

61-3

878-6
172-2

950-7

170-2
297-3
115-2
315-4
279-3

Condensing Surface.

Pump.

Total.

Per unit
of Grate-

area.

0.1

square
feet.
7,750

square
feet.
12-1

10,021

9-6

3,724

14-2

1,893

21-9

1,266

14-7

1,167

18-9

c.»

20,130

22-7

2,562

14-7

13,520

14-2

2,754

16-1

6,254

21.0

2,576

22-3

4,464

14-2

6,207

22-2

Circulation of Water.

Quantity of Water per
hour.

Total.

cubic

feet.
72,400

81,580

32,210

15,470

12,070

3,531

254,300
18,640

152,600

18,470
31,430

Per unit of
Grate-area.

eft.

per

sq. ft.

114

78
123
179
139

58 =

289
108

160

108
106

1 0 is the ordinary pump worked by the engine. C is the centrifugal pump worked by a special
engine.

- The chimney being very low, the consumption of coal was only about 130 to 150 lbs. per square
metre of grate surface, and the steam was proportionately small in quantity.

Bulk and Weight op several Surface Condensers. (Cases and

Tubes complete.)

Name of

Vessel.

Arrangement of the Con-
denser.

Surface.

Volume.

Total.

Per sq.

foot.

Weight.

Total.

Per square
foot.

Infernet

Dives
Eesolue .
Petrel .
Suffren .

■{I

One body, nearly cubi-"»

cal /

Two bodies, short tubes
Elder's system .
One body ....
Two bodies, short tubes

sq. ft.

3,724

1,266
1,893
1,167
7,750

cub. ft.

359-3

178-0
226-7
121-1

891-4

cub. ft.

-096

•141
-120
-104
-115

lbs.

31,520

16,530
23,810
11,460
82,120

lbs.

8-46

13-06

12-58

9-82

10-60

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 403

For the respective weights of condensing water per unit of weioht
of steam of

30, _ 40, 50, 100 tons,
a condensing surface is required equal to
4-41, 1-94, 1-51, 1-08 square feet,
or, 0 • 41, 0 • 18, 0 • 14, 0 • 10 square metre per indicated HP. ;
for which the gross weights of condensers will he

45-2, 19-8, 15-4, 11-0 lbs.
or, 20 • 5, 9, 7, 5 kilogs. per indicated HP. respectively.

As marine engines weigh from 397 to 441 lbs. (180 to 200 kilo-
grammes) per indicated horse-power, and as the weight of the
water of circulation is usually forty times that of the steam, the
gross weight of the condenser should not exceed about 5 per cent,
of the gross weight of the engine. This percentage is so small
that, in the Author's judgment, it is unwise to endeavour to reduce
it by increasing the amount of water of circulation, which can only
be got by a considerable expenditure of power.

In answering the question. What is the most suitable tempera-
ture of condensation? bearing in mind the reduced temperature
of the feed water, the extra power required to supply additional
condensing water, against the gain ^of useful work by effecting
a better vacuum, and other obvious contingencies, the Author
comes to the conclusion that there is no advantage in reducing
the temperature of condensation below from 104^ to 113° F. (40° to
45° C).

With regard to the general arrangement of surface condensers,
the water is now generally passed through the tubes, the steam
being condensed on the outsides. The tubes are usually from 0 • 64
to 0*8 inch in diameter outside (16 to 20 millimetres), and from
0 • 04 to 0 • 08 inch in thickness (1 to 2 millimetres). The length
varies from 3 feet 3 inches to 13 feet (1 to 4 metres), but it is
mostly about 6.V feet (2 metres). The pipes for delivering and
discharging the condensing water generally have a sectional area
not exceeding from one-sixth to one-seventh of the total sectional
area of the tubes ; and if the water comes from so small an orifice
opposite to the ends of the tubes no doubt only a small number of
these will be utilised. To remedy this defect the tubes are some-
times disposed in groups of one to four, most commonly in three
groups. The circulating pumps are driven either by the marine
engine itself or by a special engine. The Author prefers a
special engine driving a centrifugal pump so as to place the
quantity of available water under complete control. The total
power consumed in effecting this circulation of the water is from
fifteen to twenty times that which is consumed in simply commu-
nicating velocity to the water. The weight of water supplied per
indicated horse-power per hour never exceeds 17-6 cubic feet (500
litres), and its velocity never reaches 13 feet per second (4 metres), a
performance which represents only 0-0015 horse-power; whereas,
the average indicated power required to drive the pump amounts
to about 2 per cent, of that of the main engine. The results of an

2 D 2

404

ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

experiment on the resistance of condensei'-tuLes to the circulation
of the water through them are given on the authority of M. Joesseh
He placed three tubes about 4 fpet long (1*18 metre), and 0-72
inch diameter (18 millimetres), as if they constituted the three
groups of a condenser ; and passed water through them under
heads of 3 feet 3| inches, 4 feet 11 inches, and 6 feet 6^ inches
successively (1, 1^, and 2 metres); first through one tube, then
through two tubes, one after the other, and finally through three
tubes. The velocities at which the water was discharged in the
nine cases are given in the following resume : —

Velocity of Discliarge.

Height of Head.

One tube.

Two tubes.

Tliree

tubes.

metres.

feet.

metres per
second.

feet per
second.

metres per
second.

feet per
second.

metre per
second.

feet per
second.

1-0

3-28

2-02

6-63

1-46

4-70

1-12

3-67

1-5

4-92

2-61

8-56

1-82

5-97

1-32

4-33

2-0

6-56

3-01

9-87

2-02

G-63

1-69

5-54

The results of this Table indicate, in the rapid decline of velocity
as the number of tubes is increased, that the division of the con-
denser tubes into two and three groups, through which the
condensing water passes successively, causes a rapid increase of
resistance to circulation ; and that it would be decidedly better
if the condensing water could be efficiently applied directly to all
the tubes without dividing them into groups. For the attainment
of this object the Author proposes the insertion of a perforated
diaphragm facing the ends of the tubes, and parallel to the tube-
plate, through which diaphragm the water would be equally sup-
plied direct to all the tubes ; and a similar diaphragm for the
discharge of the water after having passed through the tubes. By
this means, he argues, the condensing surface would be rendered
more equally efficient, a less extent of surface would be required,
and less power would be needed to circulate the water.

The Paper closes with an inquiry as to the employment of the
motion of the vessel itself for producing the current of condensing
water through the sides of the vessel.

D. K. 0.

Tugboats on the Blione. By M. Villaret.

(Revue Maritime ct Coloniale, Feb. 1874, pp. 620-62.3, 1 pi.)

The merchandise to be towed from Aries to Lyons is contained
in large barges, which offer no jDarticular feature for remark.
They are drawn by a steamboat, technically called a ' grapiDin,'

FOREIGN TKANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 405

this being the name of the impleiucnt which constitutes the
peculiarity of the system. These ' grappin ' steamers are 301 feet
(92 metres) long, 23 feet (7 metres) broad over the hull, and
40 feet (14 metres) over the paddle-boxes. Their ordinary draiight
of water is 3 feet (90 centimetres) ; the paddle-wheels are of the
common construction, and are propelled (as is also the ' grappin')
by non-condensing engines, working steam at 3^' atmospheres (3^
atmospheres above zero, or 2h effective), and of 180 HP. of 75 kilo-
grammetres per second [ = 33,000 foot pounds per minute]. On the
I)addle-shaft there is a pulley suited to drive a pitched chain.
This chain gives motion by a similar pulley to an intermediate
shaft, placed at some little distance horizontally from the paddle-
shaft, and about 3 feet below it, in a long well-hole in the
midshijis of the vessel, extending from the dock to the bottom,
so as to aftbrd free access to the water. A strong wooden hori-
zontal frame, 23 feet (7 metres) long, is carried by one of its
ends on the intermediate shaft, while its outer ends support the
' grappin,' which thus can rise or fall in the well-hole by the frame
moving radially round about the intermediate shaft. This shaft
carries two other pulleys which, by pitched chains, drive the
' gi'appiii.'

The ' grappin ' is a wheel of the same diameter as the paddle-
wheels, made of wrought iron and furnished with numerous pro-
jecting picks. The ' grappin ' and the radial frame, when the boat
is coming down stream, are upheld in the well-hole by means of a
chain attached to a steam-crab, but on ascending the river with
barges in tow, the ' grajipin ' is lowered throiigh the bottom until
its picks act upon the bed of the river, and thus insure the boat
moving up stream, the paddle-wheels operating at the same time.
There is another steam-crab, which is brought into use under the
following circumstances : —

Assume the ' grappin ' to be inoperative, in consequence of a hole
in the bed of the river or of a rocky bottom, then the barges in
tow are cast off and made fast, while the steamboat, free from
them, is able, by means of its paddles, to stem tlie cTirrent until
it comes to some place where the 'grappin' can again act. The
' grappin ' is then lowered, but merely to serve as an anchor, while
the steam-crab is put to work to haul up the barges by means
of a tow-rope. By this contrivance the barges can be brought
from as much as 1,093 yards (1,000 metres) distance.

The cost of these boats is £24,000 (600,000 francs) ; the first of
them was built at G Ivors, in 1842, by M. Verpillieux ; the second at
La Seyne, by Mr. Taylor, in 1848 ; and five others have been built
since. At the present time three only are running. The usual
charge for haulage against the stream is 7s. (9 francs) per ton for
the whole distance from Aries to Lyons [about 200 miles]. From
500 to 600 tons of freight can be towed under ordinary circum-
stances ; but when the current is favourable, as much as 1 ,000 tons
can be successfully dealt with. B.

406 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

Theory of the Transmission of Power hj Boj)es. By H. Eesal.

(Comptes-rendus de I'Academie des Sciences, Ixxix. Aug. 17, 1874, pp. 421-427.)

The Author points out tliat the transmission of power by cables
or ropes, first used at the Perte du Ehone, is rapidly extending
in Switzerland, and is now in operation at Schaffliausen and at
Fribourg. As it may be extensively applied to the utilisation of
water power in other countries, its theory becomes an object of in-
terest. A complete exposition, however, is very difScult. Only the
most usual case is here considered, namely, where the two pulleys
carrying the cable are on the same level, and the maximum incli-
nation of the cable to the horizon is not above 30°. The cable is
supposed to be in a state of permanent motion. The velocity V
is therefore uniform throughout, and all small oscillations, arising
from elasticity, &c., are neglected. Let w be the weight per unit
of length of the cable, T the tension at any point (x y), and Q the
inclination of the tangent to the horizon at that point. Then the
equations of equilibrium are —

(IT . T o)i;2

-—= (J) sm e, — = \- o) cos e.

(Is p gp

From these it follows that the curve is a common catenary.
Integrating them

g cos d ' ^ '^*

s = m (tan 9-\-a) (2).

l + tan —
, 2 x-\-h ■ ,„-

log = — — (3).

* ^ ^ 0 TO ^ ^

1 — tan -—
« + c = (4).

^^ COS0 ^ ^

Where m, «, &, c are constants, to be determined by the following
conditions : — That either span of the cable is a tangent to the cir-
cumference of the pulleys at each end, that the sum of the spans
plus the arcs of the pulleys touched by the cable is equal to the
total length, and that the forces which act on the driving pulley
are in equilibrium. By choosing for origin the middle point of
the lower or leading span, a and & can be made to vanish. Let Q
bo the resistance acting upon this span at a tangent to the driving-
pulley, R the radius of the pulleys, 2 d the distance between their
axes, 2X the length of the cable, e the angle between the ver-
tical and the radius at the point where the lower span touches
the pulley.

FOREIGN TKANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 407

At this point d = e, x = d -{-B, sin e ; liencc equation (3) becomes

1 -f tan ^
- 2 d -f- It sin €

1 — tan -

Now £ is by supposition a small angle, and K is also small com-
pared with d. Hence as an approximation

me(l + ^e-)=d-^ne (5).

Similarly for the other span

m'£'(l-j-^e'2) = tZ-Ec' . . . . . . . (6).

There are also the two following equations : —

m tan e -f- "i' tan e' -j- R (tt -f- e' — e) = A. . . . (7).
m' u) m CO

cos e cos e

Q (8).

Approximating in these two equations as before, and using equa-
tions (5) and (6) —

,2 + ,'2^6('iZL^_2^ (

or, as a first approximation

e-e' = ^e.' (11).

From (9) and (11) the values of e and e' may be determined
to a first approximation ; then substituting these values in (10) a
second approximation may be obtained. The maximum tension
will clearly be where the lower span touches the driving pulley,
i.e., where 6 = e. Hence this tension —

g ■ cos c'

(d-R0(l-l.'2)

= —v^-\-<ji ; ; from equation (6)

g e cos e' ^ '

(c?-EO(l + ^^'^)

= -v^-L 0,

0 ^

408 ABSTRACTS OF PAPEES IN

This tension should also equal the section of the cable multiplied
by the working strain. Hence by substituting for c' its value, as
found from (9) and (11), a relation is obtained between the section
of the cable and the resistance on the driving pulley ; or, in other
words, the power transmitted. As, however, the resulting equation
is complicated, it is advised that tables should be constructed
showing the proper section of cable for different values of the
resistance.

W. E. B.

Dee2} Boring A])paratus in the JIaselgebirg. By A. Aigner.

(Oest. Zeitschrift fiir Berg-u. Hiittenwesen, No. 18, 1874, pp. 164-166.)

Exploration by means of shafts has the advantage of affording
visible inspection of the strata. By first making trials with hand-
borers the danger of meeting with water may be avoided, although
this method is expensive and demands time. The proper speed
can only be attained with a free-falling boring instrument ; but
the nature of the Haselgebirg, and the entire non-ajipearance of
water, led to a modification, which may be of service in carrying
out similar undertakings. The boring-rod is fixed to the lever by
the usual adjusting screw. The boring-bar has a diameter of
f foot, and is in convenient lengths screwed together. The lower
portion consists of a Kind's boring instrument, as improved by
Wlach, and of a cutter weighing 60 lbs., with side blades, cu.tting
to 10 inches diameter, the weight of the lower rod being 3|- cwt.
(4 Centner). The results proved it to be well adapted for boring
in the Haselgebirg. The side of the bore-hole is not injured by
blows from the rod, nor does it require to be supported by tubes,
while it is dry, and truly cj'^lindrical, the diameter — 10 inches —
not being observably diminished.

The results obtained with the ajDparatus for cleaning out the bore-
hole were not so satisfactory, devolving scoops were employed
for the purpose. At a length of 75 feet (12 Klafter) the torsion
of the scoop-rod and the excessive friction rendered further pro-
ceedings impossible, as the boring-rod made nearly a whole revo-
lution at the turning point before the scoop began to work, and
the only remedy thought of was the introduction of water or
brine ; but this did not answer for various reasons, chiefly because
it interfered with the proi:)er examination of the various strata.
To continue the dry boring an apparatus was specially designed
by Fr. Eettenbacher, which proved successful, for not only was
the bore-hole easily kept clean, but the quantity of work done by
the borer was increased. This cleaning-out apparatus is of two
designs.

In one it consists of an exterior forked vertical frame, to the
lower ends of which are attached two cylindrical metal tubes,
open at the top and at the bottom, brazed together. At the upper

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PEKIODICALS. 409

end of the frame there is a reniiul liule, in which the upper and
circnhir portion of a toothed rack works np and down. Somewhat
lower than the middle of the frame a horizontal cross-har is bolted
to it, tlivoiigh which work two spindles, at the upper end of eacli
of which is fitted a bevel wheel, and at their lower ends each has
a steel lifting-screw, provided underneath with a cutting edge.
These screws revolve at the level of the bottom of the tubes. Just
above the cross-bar revolves a horizontal spindle, to each end of
which is fixed a spur pinion gearing into the bevel wheel just men-
tioned. In the middle of the spindle is a spur-wheel, worked liy
the toothed rack, a catch and pawl arrangement only permitting
it to revolve in one direction. The upper circular portion of the
toothed rack and forked frame are weighted to 15 lbs., to give
the necessary downward pi-essure to the scooping apparatus. At
the upper circular end of the toothed rack, working up and down
in the frame as before mentioned, is attached a ring for the rope
used for raising and lowering the scoop apparatus.

The second design consists of a similar exterior frame, to the
lower ends of which is attached a sheet metal casing open at the
top and bottom, while at the top of the frame (as in the first
method) a hole permits of the up and down movement of a rod.
An interior frame of the same shape as the exterior frame is
attached to the rod, fitting closely to, and working within the
exterior frame. To the upper end of the rod, above the exterior
frame is fixed, as in the first case, an iron ring, to which is fastened
the rope for raising and lowering the apparatus. At the lower
part of the sheet-metal case are two movable doors or sliding
pieces, pressed down by a lead weight fixed to the interior frame.
Either of these cleaning-out machines is raised and lowered by a
small windlass, having mechanism for changing the position of the
jib, and fitted with a break. The boring-rod is furnished with
an indicator, as the cleaning-out machine can only be let down on
the two vacant or open sides of the boring apparatus.

The manipulation is as follows : AVhilst the men working the
machinery are resting, the cleaning-out apparatus is got ready to
extract the debris. This, in the case of the second design, is done
by drawing the interior frame upwards by the ring, forcing at the
same time the top of the exterior frame downwards, until the top
of the former meets the under edge of the latter, in which position
the sheet-metal case is open underneath. The scoop apparatus is
then lowered to within 1 foot of the bottom, and allowed to fall
freely, upon which the debris enters the casing, the movable
feathers close underneath, and the apparatus is raised and emptied.

The same process is gone through in using the first apparatus,
only with tlie difference that instead of the movable feathers or
slides, the rotating screw forces the debris upwards.

So far as experience goes this scoop apparatus is available to a
depth of 218 feet (35 Klaftcr). The fullowing table shows the
difference of effect between tlie old plan fur a depth of from 0 to
75 feet__(0 to 12 Klafter), when its further employment becomes

410

ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

impossible, and tlie new system wWcli worked from 75 to 187 feet
(12 to 30 Klafter), it being borne in mind that impediments
increase with the depth : —

Depth in Vienna
Klafter i.
(6 -22 ft. English).

8 hour
spells.

!Men. Blows.

Number.

Height
lifted,
in ZoU.

Description

of ground

bored.

OtolO

10 „ 20
20 „ 30

1,078

840
750

8 and 9

9 and 10

25,000
24,000
22,000

12
12
12

r Salt,
} Clay, and
[ Gypsum.

It is possible that, with increase of depth, the bending of the
boring-rod may render it difficult to introduce the cleaning-out
apparatus while the boring-rod is down. The I'emedy would then
be the introduction of light guides ; but should this not suffice,
the boring-bar must be unscrewed and the boring apparatus lifted,
when the scoop apparatus could be used for getting up dry borings
from great depths. The first-mentioned apparatus is already in
use where, in case of the boring machinery being lender repair, the
hole is clear from obstructions.

Another scoop apparatiTS consists of interior and exterior
forked frames somewhat similar to the foregoing. To the two
forked legs of the exterior frame, and at their lower ends, is
fixed a sheet-metal tube open at the top and bottom. A
vertical spindle is continued on the top of the interior frame,
which works through a hole in the upper part or bow of the ex-
terior one. The fork legs of the interior frame are furnished with
teeth gearing into small spur-wheels on a horizontal spindle at
about the middle of the apparatus, a crossbar underneath keeping
in position a vertical shaft having at its upper end a bevel wheel
gearing into a smaller one on the horizontal spindle. The vertical
shaft reaches from about the middle of the apparatus to the
bottom of the tube, where it carries a screw of steel plate, which
rotates and so sci-ews up the borings.

In this case the modus operandi is as follows : The scoop is let
down the bore-hole until the screw bears on the bottom, when the
rope is loosened, and the interior frame sinks down by its own
Aveight until the ring attached to the upper part of its spindle rests
on the upper part or bow of the exterior frame, thus stopping the
downward movement of the interior frame. The downward move-
ment causes the horizontal spindle to make a couple of revolutions
to the left (without effect, owing to a catch and pawl mechanism),
and when the scoop rope is lifted the revolutions take place to the
right, the vertical shaft revolves twice, causing the screw and
tube to enter the borings about 3 inches, and the apparatus is
lifted out.

At Ischl by this means the salt formation has been examined

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 411

to a depth of olO feet (82 Klaftcr) from the surface. The scoop
apparatus Avill rccomniend itself in all cases where, as in the
Haselffchirg, the ground is light, dry, and solid.

J. D. L.

The Burnhig Coal Mine at Kidder Slope. By Martin Coryell.

(Transactions of American Society of Civil Engineers, September 1874, pp. 147-154.)

The Kidder Slope in the Wyoming Valley was sunk, like other
mines in the vicinity, about 300 feet from the out-crop on the
' pitch ' or dip, with tramwaj^s right and left following the strike
of the seam. To increase production, slopes and shafts were opened
on adjacent properties, and gangways extended far below the
original workings, so that the slope consisted of a pitch or angle
of about 20° for 600 feet, next an abrupt angle of 60^ or more<
and then a flattening down to 30°. An engine, furnaces, and
boilers were securely set about 400 feet below the surface in brick
and heavy stone masonry laid in mortar, and a brick arch flue, about
3 feet inside diameter and 300 feet long, was constructed to carry
the hot air and gases into the old slope of Kidder Colliery. A
passage-way alongside the flue allowed a watchman to examine the
air currents. For two years or more this work went on most
satisfactorily. Aboiit December 29th, 1873, the watchman found
nothing to report ; but two days later, the wooden stack on the
surface over the air shaft burned, which, giving direction and
intensity to the draft, spread sparks and flames through the old
works. To subdue the fire, water from adjacent streams was intro-
duced by pii^es, pumps were set to work, and in the mine steam
pumps forced water directly on to the fire through passage-ways
cut through pillars of coal. The labours of the men seemed
successful, but they had left fire smouldering amidst the steam and
smoke, which burst forth again in their rear. The rarefied air
passing off in furious currents, drew fresh supplies from all parts
of the colliery, which fed the fire, and distributed hot air and
gases through the mine. To obviate this barricades or ' brattices '
were constructed for the protection of the men, and to prevent the
air from feeding the fire ; when, however, the supply of fresh air
was cut off from the fire, the men became helpless. Eescrvoirs for
water were increased in size and number, portable boilers, steam
pumps, hose, &c., procured from cities, and men were placed with
almost military strictness and discipline, and continuously worked
in shifts of eight hours in the mines and of ten hours outside.
There were no maps or plans, and everj^thing had to be done
at a venture. A roadway was cut, explored, and graded through
the old mine : and in a very short time a railroad 3,000 feet
long was laid from the surface to the fire for men, mules, and
material. Sometimes, when lines of brattices were erected to
protect the men, an undiscovered old working would let in the
hot air and gases from behind. In several cases it was necessary

412 ABSTKACTS OF PAPERS IN

to connect sections of work which were cut off or separated by the
fire, and air-courses and travelling-ways had to be made where
men wore exposed to the gases and intense heat. To eBect this
Avooden brattices were projected into chambers filled with hot air
and glowing with heat ; to maintain them in position and prevent
their rapid destruction clay, or the debris of the mine, was
cast against them, and the unexposed sides kept dripping with
Avater ; these brattices would soon be injured, if not entirely
destroyed, but before this more enduring ones could be con-
structed. Gases and vapours were generated in such quantities
that lamps shed but a dim, uncertain light. A suitable portion
of the mine was set apart as a hospital, a physician put in charge,
and a corps of men kept in readiness at a signal to rescue those
overcome by the carbonic acid gas. The freezing of water and
streams on the surface caused serious embarrassment, while the
heat inside increased greatly ; and at the top of the seam the
sulphur in the coal and slates boiled out or exuded as a viscous
substance, which, as the fire reached it, gave off volumes of sul-
phurous gas intensely heated. Slates and rocks expanded by the
heat, cracks or fissures appeared, large flakes were frequently
detached. It was evident that a fall must take place, and one
night, 3 acres (2,600,000 cubic feet, or 180,000 tons) subsided at
least 10 feet, and spread great alarm.

It was gradually found that concentrated and confined steam gave
the best results. An irregular area of about 37 acres was inclosed,
and steam at a pressure of 60 lbs. per square inch, generated in thirty-
eight boilers (3 feet diameter and 30 feet long), was forced into the
mine. The barricades against the fire consisted of brattices, with
or without clay, sometimes two 4 feet apart, with clay or dirt in
between, a complete and permanent barricade being made of two
walls extending from the bottom to the top rock, made of good
material laid in mortar, and the space filled in with clay. The
temperature of the escaping gas, which exceeded 220^ Fahr., was
gradually reduced to about 100°, and there was every hope of soon
bringing the fire to a termination.

J. D.L.

Tlie Combustion of Petroleum Oils. By M. Barret.

(Annales Jii Genie Civil, January, March, and April, 1874, 36 pp.)

The cliicf object of this Paper is to direct attention to the dangers
incidental to tlie transport and storing of petroleum, and to the
means of extinguishing fire when it takes place. In commerce,
petroleum is recognised as of two kinds : one is light, of a greenish-
brown colour, varying in density from O'SOO to 0-815; the other
is heavy, of a deeper colour, and of a density varying from 0 • 840
to 0-900. As peti'oleum is not commonly fit to be used in its
crude state, fractional distillation is resorted to. The j)roducts of
such distillation are : — 1 . The essential oil of petroleum, colourless

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 413

and extremely fluid. It volatilises quickly, and ]iroduces very
inflammalde vapour. The density is from 0'70() to 0-750. 2. I'ho-
togene, or burning oil, usually of a yellow colour ; it gives off in-
flammable vaix)ur at 98° '6 F. (37^ C.) ; specific gravity from
0-800 to 0-815. 3. Lubricating oil, of a density varying from
0*810 to 0-900. 4. Paraffin and tar, employed for the same
purposes as asplialte.

Petroleum in the crude state, or the essential oil of petroleum,
spread in a sheet, either on Avater or on. the ground, and exposed to
the open air, takes fire at a temperature above 32° F. on the
application of a lighted match. The presence of flame, however,
is necessary for its ignition at a temperature below 68^ F.
(20' C). A lump of coal at a cherry red, or of iron at a dull
red heat equal to from 1,112" to 1,292" F. (600° to 700° C),
plunged into the liquid does not ignite it. When placed in an
open vessel and suddenly raised to a temperature of from 572° to
662° F. (300° to 350° C.) by the immersion of a piece of red-hot
iron, these liquids give off intensely white vapours which explode
like gunpowder by contact with flame. Two barrels were filled,
one with crude oil, the other with the essential oil, to within
1 inch (2 to 3 centimetres) of the bung-hole ; on setting fire to the
contents, they burned with wavering flames about 3 inches high
(6 to 7 centimetres) without any explosion. Eefined burning oil is
not considered up to standard unless it requires for inflaming a,-
temperature, at the lowest, of 98°- 6 F. (37° C.) ; that is to say, the
temperature of the small portion in contact with the flame. Some
imagine, however, that it is not the oil in the liquid state which
burns, but its vapours. This conclusion is negatived by a lighted
night-light floating on the surface of refined oil at a low tem-
perature ; a few seconds afterwards, flame is communicated to the
oil immediatel}- surrounding the night-light, and extends gradually
over the whole surface of the oil. M. Pelzer's experiments, on
the qualities of petroleum, show the relation of density to the
temperature at which it inflames. Annexed are the densities for
various temperatures : —

Temperature of inflaimiiation.

Density. ° V. « C.

0-6S5 - 5-8 or - 21

0-700 - 2-2 ,, - 19

0-740 + 59-0 ,, + 15

0-750 G2-G ,, 17

0.7G0 95 ,, 35

0-775 113 ,, 45

0-7S3 122 ,, 50

0-792 167 ,, 75

0-805 104 ,, 90

0-8-22 230 ,, 110

0-802 (crude petroleum) ... 59 , , 15

The Author shows that as there cannot be explosion without a
space for vapour (mingled with air) in the lecipients above the
petroleum, it would render the storage of petroleum safe if it were
kept in vessels immersed overhead in water, communication being

414 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

made between tlie water aud the oil vessel at the bottom of the
latter. The petroleum being drawn off from the top, the water
would flow in below and thus always keep the petroleum close
np against the top of the containing vessel, and prevent the possi-
bility of an accumulation of vapour.

A stratum of crude petroleum 3 • 6 inches thick (9 centimetres),
weighing 176 lbs. (80 kilogrammes), was kept at rest on the surface
of the sea, within a floating inclosure 40 inches square (1 metre)
and 8 inches high (0-2 metre). The weather being calm, and
the temperature of the air 59° F. (15° C), this quantity was
burned in thirty-five minutes, and raised a column of flame 8 feet
2 inches high (2*5 metres). Combustion thus proceeded at the
rate of 5 lbs. per minute (2 '28 kilogrammes), consuming a thick-
ness of 0*108 inch (2*7 millimetres) in the same time. When the
layer of petroleum was reduced by combustion to a thickness of
from 0*20 to 0*24 inch (6 to 6 millimetres), the sea-water com-
menced to boil, the agitation caused by which redoubled the
energy of the combustion, and raised the flame to a height of
19 feet 8 inches (6 metres). The residue of the combustion con-
sisted of a sheet of black fatty matter 0 • 08 inch (2 millimetres)
thick.

It is remarked that the slightest agitation of the surface of the
oil very much augments the development of flame. A small
piece of wood thrown into burning petroleum on rising liberates
vapour and causes an explosion like that of gunpowder. The
Author describes in detail the process of burning experimentally
barrels of petroleum under varying circumstances. He then points
out how essential it is for safety that petroleum in warehouses
should be below the ground level, and that ships in port should be
surrounded by floating inclosures, so that in both instances the
oil, in the event of a fire, may be prevented from spreading. He
next proceeds to the consideration of the volatility of petroleum
and its products, to ascertain which each kind of petroleum was
exposed to the open air in glass vessels exactly gauged, present-
ing an evaporative surface of 4*65 square inches (30 square centi-
metres), with a volume of 12 • 8 cubic inches (210 cubic centimetres)
forming a column 2 '76 inches high (7 centimetres). From the
observed depressions of level caused by evaporation the loss per
square yard of surface per twenty-four hours M^as deduced as
follows : — -

0'64 gallons per square yard (3-5 litres per square metre) refined petroleum.

1-66 ,, ,, ,, (9 ,, ,, ,, ) crude ,,

3-31 ,, ,, ,, (18 ,, ,, ,, ) alcohol.

7-18 ,, ,, ,, (39 ,, ,, ,, ) essential oil.

The manner in which fire by petroleum may be prevented in
warehouses and on quays, and the best means for securing its safe
storage, may be briefly stated as follows : — •

(1.) Storing barrels or cases in warehouses of one storey only,
built of incombustible materials.

FOREIGN TRxVNSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS.

415

(2.) Transfen-ing the oil into metallic tanks.

(3.) Making a large tank in masonry, filling it with water, and
plunging into it, month downward, a vessel, like a gas-
holder, containing the petroleum, which is to float on tho
water within the inverted vessel.

(4.) Attaching weights to the ordinary barrels and sinking
them in water.

The Author points out that if a vessel laden with petroleum
takes fire in a crowded port, it is worse than useless, so far as the
other vessels are concerned, to scuttle her, because the water
rushing in displaces the petroleum, and thus causes it to float
about over the surface of the water instead of being confined to
the burning ship.

The Paper concludes with two tables, one of which shows the
relative proportion of the various products obtained by fractional
distillation from different petroleums, and is given below in
extenso.

The other table, based on the experiments of M. Henri Saint-
Clair Deville, gives the specific gravities, the co-efScient of dilatation
and the weight of water that can be evaporated by each of forty-
one different minei'al oils. The specific gravity varies from 0*786
for petroleum of Parma to 1 • 044 for the heavy oil of the Parisian
Gas Company. The co-efficient of dilatation ranges from 0 • 000641
in the case of petroleixm of Hanover (Wilze) to O'OOl in the case

Products of Distillation.

Oil from

Pennsylvania

(density 0-802).

Oil from

Canada

(density 0-835).

Oil from United States,

provinces unknown

(density 0-820).

Essence of petroleum \
(rf = 0-735) /

14-7

12-5

4-3

Lighting oils (d = 0-820)

41-0

35-8

44-2

Lubricating oils . . .

39-4

43-7

45-7

Paraffin

2-0

3-0

2-7

Eesidue

2-1

3-2

2-2

Loss

Totals . ^ . .

0-8

1-8

0-9

100-0

of the Parma petroleum (before mentioned) and of Canada West ;
while the power of evaporating water lies between 12-240 times
the weight of the oil for the crude petroleum of the schists of
Yagnas ( Ardechc) to 15-364 times the weight of the combustible
for the oil of Schwabwiller (Bas-Ehin).

D. K. C.

416 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

Mespective Merits of Blast-furnace or Cupola Castings.

By A. Ledebur.
(Berg-und Hiittenmannische Zeitung, No. 2, 1874.)

It being often specified in orders for gas and water tubes that the
casting Le made from the cupola, and not direct from the blast
furnace, the Author has been led to investigate the inherent
changes, produced by remelting pig iron in a cupola, that make it
denser and stronger than when flowing directly from the blast
furnace. No doubt there is an oxidising effect^ great in propor-
tion to the height above the tuyeres at which the iron melts ;
greater, therefore, in the cold-blast furnace, and in the old form
of cupola, worked with small blow-pipes and a high pressure of
blast, than in the more recent forms. The best of all is Krigar's
cupola, in which the blast, passing through wide openings partly
filled with red-hot coke, has its free oxygen taken up and neu-
tralised before coming in contact with the iron. The value of this
oxidising effect of melting in cupolas depends upon the purpose
for which the casting is intended. Iron, carbon, silicon, in a less
degree sulphur, and in a still less degree phosphorus, are burnt
out, and a less carbonised, purer, denser iron is the result. For
most purposes an iron is wanted soft enough to work, but strong
and uniform in texture, and free from hard lumps, formed of an
agglomeration of crystalline grains, with pure carbon, much of it
as graphite, very free from silicon, sulphur, and iDhosj)horus. Too
much graphite gives the iron a looser texture and renders it weak,
as does also silicon ; too little, makes it liable to break up under
the tool. Sulphur renders it sluggish when molten, and honey-
combed when cold, from the fact of sulphur gases being given
oif. Phosphorus, though making it liquid when molten, causes
it to be brittle when cold, and tends to make white iron. Pig-
such as No. 1 , always rich in silicon, and often containing much
sulphur, is improved by one, two, and even three remeltings.
But less graphitic iron, such as No. 3, coke pig and all charcoal pigs
which contain the right proportion of graphite, are not improved
by it ; charcoal pig, in fact, cannot be remelted alone, thoiigh it
improves No. 1 when remelted with it.

The absorption of carbon is directly proportional to the time the
iron remains unmolten after having been reduced from the ores.
The proportion of combined to uncombined carbon is a function of
the temperature of the smelting zone, or rather of the degree to
which the iron is superheated. A high temperature works power-
fully in producing graphitic iron, and this in two ways ; directly,
by changing the already formed carburet (Fe4 C) into one less

* This oxidising cifect of the blast is relatively much less in the blast fiu'nace,
because there the iron is protected not only by the slags, but also by the greater
proportion of fuel to iron ; and the blast being hot, the active oxygen is more
rapidly taken up, and its effect neutralised by the carbon.

FOREIGN 'inANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 417

solul-tle ; and indirectl}', by reducing and dissolving foreign sub-
stances, such as silicon, which prevent the intimate chemical com-
bination between iron and carbon. The uncombined carbon of the
first sort is easily changed into combined by remelting at a low
heat and sudden cooling. But the uncombined carbon of the
second sort, such as Scotch foundry pig, remains grey even when
rapidly cooled. Tn general it may be assumed that ores easy to
reduce and smelt with a liquid slag yield, when the temperature of
the smelting zone is low, a white highly-carbonised pig, and when
the temperature of this zone is higher, a grey or mottled pig. With
ores easy to reduce, but hard to smelt, the remelting pig is grey
with little combined carbon, such as No. 2, made up chiefly of
crystalline grains of pure iron. Ores hard to reduce, but easy to
smelt, always yield a white pig iron poor in carbon.

The first group includes spathic ores and spherosiderites, which
are the best for getting highly-carbonised white irons. Between
the first and second would come brown haematites of recent geolo-
gical formation, such as bog ores, minettes, and bean ores (the
last two from Luxembourg), which are suitable for either grey or
white iron. To obtain grey irons from these, a high heat in the
hearth, got by a highly heated blast, is required, and the slag
should be a basic refractory one. The second group is represented
by nearly all the red liEematites, as well as the brown hasmatites
from the older formation. The charcoal irons of the Harz and
Nassau, and the Cumberland pigs, are good examples of the produce
of these last. Magnetic ores belong princij^ally to the third group,
from which most Swedish pig is produced. The last group is made
up almost unexceptionall}' of forge and finery cinders. When grey
iron is to be produced only a small percentage of these can be used.
As resistance to breaking may generally be taken as the chief
requisite in cast iron, the Author gives some tables of breaking
strains for comparison. The experiments were made on bars, cast
in a half-upright mould, 0*99 inch (25 millimetres) square, laid on
supports 31-5 inches (0*8 metre) apart, the load being applied at
the centre. They represent the mean of several hundred trials.

kgrs. lbs.

1. Charcoal iron direct from the blast furnace, from a mixture of

magnetic and hydrated brown hematite peroxide, broke at. 426 1,137

2. Charcoal iron direct, from red and brown hsematites and a little

magnetic ore . . . . . . . . . 436

3. The same iron melted with charcoal in an old form of cupola .

4. The same iron melted with coke in an old form of cupola

5. The same mixed with Scotch iron and melted with coke

6. Charcoal iron from bog ores. ......

7. The same melted with coke in an Irish cupola

8. The same mixed with equal parts of English pig (Clarence)

and melted like the last

9. Scotch iron, Langloane No. 1, melted once with coke
10. Scotch iron, Langloane No. 1, mixed with an equal part of

white mangauifurous iron, and melted with coke at a very

higli heat

[1874-75. N.S.]

436

1,164

425

1,134

375

1,001

398

1,062

387

1,033

360

l»61

425

1,134

400

1,068

52',

1,401

2 E

418 ABSTRACTS OP PAPERS IN

Tlie Author deduces for these that it is sufficient, in giving
orders, to specify the resistance to rupture, and that in many cases
castings direct from the furnace may be actually better than those
from a cupola. -p xy

On the Size of Blast-furnace Charges.

(Berg-und Hiittenmannische Zeitung, No. 7, 1874.)

G. Eingel has shown by statistics, that small charges are better
than large ones. Other conditions, including that of the produc-
tion of iron, being equal, a small charge will be at least three hours
longer in the furnace than a large one ; it remains so much longer
exposed to the furnace gases, and the charges follow each other
past the tuyeres more than twice as quickly ; by which means the
temperature in the carbonising and reduction zones is reduced,
while the charges reach the zone of smelting in a better state of
preparation.

Small charges have, moreover, the following advantages : —

(a) The layers of ore being thinner allow a more intense action
of the gases.

(6) The more rapid alternation of the charges prevents too high
a temperature in the zone of preparation, and lessens the danger
of scaffolding.

(c) The fuel is more equally distributed, and by presenting a
larger surface to the incoming blast is more thoroughly utilised.

(^d) The better intermixture of the fuel with the batch allows
the injurious ingredients of the former to be more quickly absorbed
by such ingredients as are added to neutralise them.

(e) The temperatures in the zones above the smelting zone
being lower, and the iron therefore more completely reduced and
more thoroughly carbonised, the injurious influence of the sulphur
given off by the fuel is lessened.

(/) The temperature above the boshes being lower, opposes the
reduction of silicon.

A great error is made in preferring large to small charges, espe-
cially for the fuel, as the temperature of the furnace is too much
raised by so doing. Practice has shown that 17 to 20 cwt. is
a good fuel charge, and far preferable to one of twice that size.
As a basis for calculating the charges of fuel, it is often laid
down that it should be sufficient to form a layer over the broadest
section of the furnace, which should be thick enough (according to
some metallurgists, 4 inches and more) to prevent the next ore
charge from getting through; but this is an unsafe rule to act
upon, as one component of the calculation, the density of the coke,
is very variable.

The Author, after restating the advantages of small charges, adds
that lime also has the effect of more thoroughly carbonising the
iron, and that by using small charges and lime, the sulphur from
the fuel can be kept out of the pig. -, .^

FOPvEIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 419

Inquiries info the Texture of Iron. By M. Janoyer.

(Annales des Mines, No. 1, 1874, pp. 80-109.)

Tlie Author starts with the assumption, that the granular texture
is the only arrangement of particles inherent in the metal, and
adduces arguments and experiments to confirm the statement. The
different classes of iron, such as granulated and fibrous, or iron into
the texture of which both these elements enter, are the results
of an imperfect or defective process of manufacture, not ad-
mitting of that perfect welding or amalgamation of particles,
which alone constitutes the true condition of the metal. All de-
scriptions of wrought iron may, therefore, be classed under the two
general heads of granulated, or iron perfectly welded throughout
the entire mass, and fibrous, in which these conditions do not
obtain.

Iron, manufactured with wood fuel, when it is very pure and
homogeneous, has always a granulated texture. Without denying
the influence of the hammer, to which some attribute the texture
in question, it is due essentially to the high temperature, which
promotes the repulsion of the scorige aud the perfect welding of
the entire mass. In order to prove that high temperature is indis-
pensable to the production of granular iron, it is sufficient for the
puddler, engaged in making blooms for iron of that description, to
lower the temperature of the furnace, to roll the bloom about in
the scorise, and to place it in that condition under the hammer.
The iron produced will be altogether of a fibrous chai-acter. Never-
theless, in this operation the puddling process has suffered no
alteration, and yet the ' granular iron has become fibrous. The
lowering of the temperature, which favoured an imperfect welding,
and the interposition of scoriae are the only agents accountable for
the change in the texture of the metal. As the transformation of
granular into fibrous iron is produced by lowering the temperature,
at a certain stage in the manufacture, the reverse of the operation
changes fibrous into granular iron. It is merely necessary to
raise the temperature sufficiently to effect the welding. Thus
iron can be manufactured of either character, as may be required :
and a bar may present at one extremity a texture of the one
nature, and of the other at the opposite end.

What has been already stated relates to tha production of
raw iron ; it remains to be seen how the different operations of
forging, rolling, and converting it into wrought iron, affect the
texture. If several bars of granular iron be made into a pile,
reheated to a white heat, and then passed through the rolls, the
rolled bar will be also of a granular texture, provided alwaj's,
when it leaves the last groove, the temperature is sufficiently high
to maintain the welding complete. If, on the other hand, the bar
leaves the roUs at a simple red heat, the texture will be fibrous,
because the amalgamation of the particles is incomplete. Tlio
bar being drawn out in too cold a condition for the particles

2 E 2

420 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

to weld together, tliey slide upon one another, the tissue is lengtli-
oned, and the fibrous condition results. Whenever a slight indi-
cation of fibres is seen in large granular bars, it will be found to
occur at the junction of the different pieces forming the pile, where,
owing to the interposition of scoriae, the welding has not been
perfect.

The microscope shows that while in granular iron, the degree
of homogeneity is considerable, the contrary is the case with
that of a fibrous nature. Moreover, it confirms the statements
respecting the purity and density of granular iron, and at the
same time demonstrates the cellular and imperfectly amalgamated
condition of the fibrous metal. The microscope also shows the
want of uniformity of texture in mixed irons, and the presence
of foreign bodies in iron made with coal, after the English method.
The fineness of the grain, considered absolutely, is not due to
the presence of carbon, and, consequently, does not necessarily
indicate a steely character. Swedish irons are examples of this ;
for, although of a decidedly steely nature, they frequently are
very large grained. The fine grain merely insures iron of
superior quality as regards its tenacity. The microscope leaves
no doubt whether coal or wood has been employed. Fibrous iron
made with wood fuel always presents a bright section, never the
dull, black appearance belonging to that made with coal.

To prove the evil effects of imperfect welding, an experiment
was made in which 33 lbs. of old iron were added to a charge,
in the hope that it would become incorporated with the whole
mass made from the pig. The old iron became oxidised, and
formed a scoria which remained in the metal. When old iron was
not added in this manner, the quality was excellent. Granular iron
being more readily welded than fibrous, its density is greater in
the proportion of 7-791 to 7-751. Other figures give 7-78 and
7 - 60. For the same reason, granular iron resists strains of tension
and compression better than the other, but it is weaker with
regard to flexure, although joossessing greater elasticity than
fibrous iron. With respect to malleability and ductility, the
fibrous or non-welded iron is more malleable, but less diictile
than the granular. The metalloids sulphur and phosphorus play
oj)posite parts in their influence upon iron. The former prevents-
the perfect welding, and, owing to the formation of scoriee, the
fibres are short and black. On the other hand, phosjihorus assists
this amalgamation or welding of the particles and produces a
granular iron. From this it is maintained that iron has but one-
normal condition of particles, the granular, which is based upon
the essential property of welding or amalgamation. All other
textures are simply the result of a defective and imperfect welding,
in the j)rocess of manufacture.

C. T.

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS.

421

On the Mechanical Pro;perties of Gun-metal. By M. Tresca.

(Annales du Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, No. 38, pp. 324^334.)

It was found during tlie siege of Paris that specimens of gun-
metal, when tested by tension, gave different results. This led to
careful experiments on three varieties of bronzes, of which the
composition was as follows : —

Ordinary Bronze
of Bourges.

Phosphoric Bronze
of Bourges.

Laveissiere Bronze.

(B.)

(P)

(L.)

Copper .

89-87

90-60

89-47

Tin . . .

9-45

S-82

9-78

Zinc .

0-31

0-27

0-66

Leadj. . .

Total. .

0-37

0-31

0-09

100-00

Eectangular bars, 2 inches by 1 inch (0-05 metre by 0*025 metre)
in section, were tested by flexion, and bars 1 inch (0 • 025 metre)
sqTiare, and round bars f inch (0-012 metre) in diameter by tension.
The mean results of the tests are as follows, the units of length
and of section being 1 metre (3*28 feet) and 1 square metre
respectively.

Modulus of elasticity.

Weight at limit
of elasticity.

Elongation at
limit.

Breaking weight.

Ultimate elonga-
tion.

kilogrammes.
7,589,000,000

kilogrammes.
8,901,000

metre.
-001182

kilogrammes.
10,715,000

metre.
-03G5

lbs.

(10,770,000)

lbs.
(12,700)

ft.
(-0039)

lbs.
(23,100)

ft.
(-12)

kilogrammes.
8,250,000,000

kilogrammes.
8,007,000

metre.
•001222

kilogrammes.
21,827,000

metre.
•047

lbs.
(11,734,000)

lbs.
(12,300)

ft.
(-004)

lbs.
(31,000)

ft.
(•154)

kilogrammes.
9,061,000,000

kilogrammes.
11,210,000

metre.
•001125-

kilogrammes.
26,270,000

metre.
•177

lbs.

(12,887,000)

lbs.

(15,900)

ft.
(-0037)

lbs.
(37,300)

ft.
(•58)

The English weights are referred to 1 square inch as the unit
of section. B in its fractured section had a metallic lustre and

422 ABSTEACTS OF PAPEKS IN

niimerotis grains of tin; P had a dull appearance, grained sur-
face, and uniform texture ; L had a metallic lustre, grained surface,
and very unilform texture. It appears from the above table that
the moduli of elasticity of B, P, and L are in the ratios of 1 • 00,
1 '09, and 1 '20, and that the limit of elasticity of L exceeds that of
B and P by one-fourth, the elongation at the limit being the same
lor all.

The mechanical work expended is represented by the products
of the weights into the corresponding elongations ; and in the case
of rupture the following proportions exist :

Breaking weight.

Elongation.

Mechanical work

1-00

1-31

1-29

1-97

1-57

4-85

7-45

so that 7^ times more mechanical work must be expended to break
a bar of L than is required for B. The sui^eriority of the Laveissiere-
bronze in every respect over the other two is evident ; and the
phosphoric bronze is shown to be better than the ordinary bronze
of Bourges. L. V. H.

Experimenfal and Geometrical Investigation of Internal
Ballistics. By General Morin.

(Annales du Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, No. 38, pp. 304-323, 1 pi.)

While acknowledging the efforts of Hutton, and while giving
due credit to the elegant experiments of Eumford, it must be
admitted that Piobert, following the wise precept of Bacon to
base his reasoning on experiment, was the first to establish a
mathematical theory of the expansive forces of explosives in
fire-arms, and of the laws of motion communicated to the pro-
jectiles, which laws are called internal ballistics. In 1846-47
the relative merits and behaviour of gunpowder and gun-cotton
were investigated, by determining the velocities imparted t(j
bullets weighing 444 grains (28-8 grammes), and having a diameter
of f inch (17 millimetres), fired with charges of 123 grains
(8 grammes) ctf powder, or 44 grains (2*86 grammes) of gun-cotton,
in gun-barrels of ten different lengths, varying from 4 calibres
to 64 calibres. The results of these experiments may be re-
presented by curves, the abscissae being the spaces traversed
by the projectile, drawn full size, and the ordinates, half its
'vires viv»,' drawn to a suitable scale on section paper. The
inclination of tangents to the curve thus described, where the

W , W V d V W rf "^^

ordinate is ^ — V^ and the abscissa s, is — —

g ' g ds gdt

which gives the motive force imparted to the projectile ; or the-
resultant of the expansive force, the resistance to alteration of
shape, friction, and displacement of air. By marking off abscissa^
at definite intervals, drawing ordinates to meet the curve, and

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 423

nssuming tlic portion of the curve intercepted between each
orilinate to be a straight line, the curve becomes a polygon, the
sides of which correspond to the inclinations of the required tan-
gents. These are easily calculated, and the values of the forces
imparted to the projectile at any part of its passage through the
barrel are in this manner readily found. The results thus arrived at
approach much nearer to the truth than do those obtained by
M. Pothier's graphic method of drawing normals, applied by him
in working out the results of certain experiments conducted with
cannon in 1869. The conversion of the curve into a polygon
implies that the force exerted on the projectile may, without great
error, be considered constant in the space between each ordinate,
and that the motion of the projectile may be taken to vary
uniformly between these points. On this assumption the follow-
ing relations are obtained between s, the space traversed ; t, the
time of transit ; V, the velocity acquired ; and F, the force : —

V 2 - 0 1-^ s V 2 _ V 2 _J_ 2 2.V Y2-V24-2 •'^ ^ s

n - 3 ^\Y '1 ^2 - * 1 '2 T^ 2 ly '^2 ^3 - ♦ 2 '3 T^ 2 iy *

These formulae show the total time occupied by the standard bullet
in traversing a barrel 3;^ feet (1 metre) long to be, with the
standard charge of gunpowder, -^^^ second, and, with gun-cotton,
^j-fg- second. They also show that the velocity acquired at the muzzle
should be 1,247 feet (380 metres) with gunpowder, and 1,260
feet (384 metres) with gun-cotton, the actual velocity being
1,234 feet (376 metres) for both. The maximum motive force,
exerted by the explosive, is to the mean motive force capable of
producing the same velocity, as 2*39 to 1 with gunpowder, and
6'02 to 1 with gun-cotton. These investigations also demonstrate
that the velocity imparted by gun-cotton to the projectile at the
commencement of its course is greater than that derived from gun-
powder, but that the difference in time in passing over equal spaces
becomes less as the projectile advances, and just before leaving
the barrel the times are the same for each. The velocity imparted
to a projectile by gunpowder increases continuously, though more
slowly, as it advances ; but with gun-cotton the velocity actually
decreases before it leaves the barrel, owing to the condensation
of the water, which is one of the products of the combustion.

L. V. H.

Experimental Researches on Explosive Substances.

By MM, Eoux and Sarrau.

(Comptes-rendus de I'Acad^mie des Sciences, Oct. 5, 1874, pp. 757-760.)

It had been shown in a former communication that dynamite
might be exploded by two methods. Simple explosion is caused by

424

ABSTEACTS OF PAPEBS IN

the ordinary ignition of the substance ; detonation — by the percus-
sion of a strong priming of fulminate of mercury. By these
two kinds of explosion very different pressures are produced,
and the Authors have endeavoured to measure the relative]
intensities of these pressures, by the quantities of each explosive
substance respectively required to rupture bomb-shells identical
in form and dimension. They have shown, further, from recent
experiments, that this property of double explosiveness belongs
to the greater number of other explosives besides dynamite.'
The charge of gunpowder, necessary to produce rupture, was
200 '62 grains (13 grammes) — by simple explosion. The ratio
of 13 grammes to the rupturing charge of another substance
is a measure of the force of the substance, the force of gun-
powder by simple explosion being taken as 1. The subjoined
Table contains the explosive force, thus experimentally obtained, of
various substances, together with the proportion of permanent
gases produced by simple explosion, in percentages of the weights
of the substances, and the quantity of heat disengaged by 1 kilo-
gramme and 1 lb. of the substance, in French and English units
respectively. It is shown that the simple explosive force of
gunpowder is more than quadrupled by detonation ; that the simple
explosive force of a substance is proportional to the product of the
weight of gases disengaged by the heat ; and that the detonating
forces, for six of the substances, are nearly proportional to the
heat disengaged.

Eesults of Experiments on Explosive Substances.

Substance
exploded.

Explosive force,

that of Gun-
powder, by sim-
ple explosion =1.

Relative
weight

of
gases.

Heat disengaged by

2nd

Ist

1 Kilogramme,
French Measure.

lib.,
English measure.

order.

2nd order.

1st order.

2nd order.

1st order.

Fulminate of mer-|
cury . . . ./

ratio.

ratio.
9-28

per cent.

units.

• •

units.
752

units.

* •

units.
1,354

Gunpowder . . .

1-00

4-34

41-4

731

732

1,316

1,318

Nitro-glycerine .

4-80

10-13

80-0

1,720

1,777

3,097

3,200

Pyroxyle . . .

300

6-46

85-0

1,056

1,060

1,902

1,909

Picric acid . . .

2-04

5-50

89-2

828

868

1,491

1,563

Picrate of potass .

1-82

5-31

74-0

787

852

1,417

1,534

Ditto baryta .

1-71

5-50

71-9

671

705

1,208

1,270

Ditto strontium

1-35

4-51

62-4

637

745

1,147

1,342

Ditto lead .

155

5-94

66-8

555

663

999

1,194

D. K. C.

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. -125

On the Emjiloyment of Electro-coppered Cast-iron Cylinders
for Printing on Stuffs. By Tii. Sciilumbergeu.

(Bulletin de l;i Socie'tc Industrielle de Miilhou.se, March 1874, pp. 116-120.)

During the last thirty years, repeated attempts have been made
in Enghxnd to replace the solid copper and brass cylinders used in
printing-mills by cylinders of cast iron, covered with copper by
galvanic deposit. These attempts have not been attended with
the success that was anticipated, and the system has fallen into
comparative disuse.

In 1871, M. Theodore Schlumberger presented to the " Societc
Industrielle de Mulhouse" a Note on the Em2')loyr^':nt of Cast-iron
Coppered Cylinders, and in March last M. Gustavo Scha3ffer re-
ported to the society, which had offered a prize for the best essay on
the subject, the progress made up to that time.

Neither the Note of M. Schlumberger nor the Report of M.
Scha3flFer are encouraging. The advantages are sufficiently great to
induce perseverance; but the serious difficultes lead to the con-
clusion, that further experiments should be undertaken from a
new starting-point. The copper and brass cylinders employed,
in a printing-mill represent a large capital. A new roller weighs
between 1 cwt. and 2 cwt., the metal costing 2s. to 2s. 6d. per lb.,
and it can only be employed until, having been successively
turned oiF and re-engraved, its weight is reduced to about ^ cwt.
Each re-engraving lessens the weight by about 5 lbs, and the dia-
meter by somewhat more than the depth of the previous engraving.
Sometimes, when adapting a roller to a given pattern, or pairing
it with another to a given design, much more than this has to be
turned to waste. Could cast iron be used as the foundation of these
rollers, the saving in capital sunk in these machines would be
obviously great. The raw metal would cost less than l^d. jDor lb.,
and, when prepared to receive the copper coating, little more than
3^cZ. per lb.

Since 18G4 M. Louis Huguenin has coppered a number of rollers,
which have been engraved five or six times without any incon-
venience. M. Schlumberger asserts that a positive advantage was
gained each time the rollers were put into the coppering vats,
because the imperfections on the surface of the copper disappeared.
He estimates the cost of a cast-iron roller of ordinary dimensions
at £4, and the cost of each re-coppering at from 8s. to 16s. — a
price which is capable of reduction.

The difficulties, on the other hand, are serious. In the first
place, the saving of cost is less than appears from the estimate
ut the saving of so many pounds of copper, from the fact that the
electrotype copper costs at least five or six times as much as the
commercial copper ordinarily used. Next, the adherence between
the cast iron and the copper is not sufficient to prevent the latter
Irom being injured under great pressure, and sometimes becom-

426 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

ing laminated and loosened from tlie iron. Lastly, a cast-iron
coppered roller is more difficult to repair tlian a solid copper or
brass one. When one of tlie latter gets injured the place is plugged,
or the surface burnished xip and engraved ; with a cast-iron cylinder,
however, these processes are difficult, for plugging is attended Avith
the danger of Ijreaking through the coat and leaving the iron
exposed, by which the colours or the mordants are altered, while
burnishing causes the copper to dilate, and destroys its adherence
to the iron.

The process in these experiments was as follows : —

After the surface has been turned up true in the lathe, the cast-
iron roller is cleansed of grease by a strong alkaline solution, and
washed with an abundance of water, all traces of oxide being
removed with a fine file. When this is accomplished, the metallic
surface is brilliant, and great care must be taken; to prevent the
moisture of the breath or of the fingers from coming in contact
with it. The cleansed and polished roller is then plunged in an
alkaline copper bath, and left during twenty-four hours under the
current of five or six elements until the whole surface of the cast iron
is covered with a thin but well-adhering skin of copper. This
alkaline bath maybe composed as follows: — In 12 parts of water
dissolve 1 part of sulphate of copper. In 16 parts of water dissolve
cyanide of potassium, 3 ; carbonate of soda, 4 ; sulphate of soda,
2 parts. The two solutions are mixed after the salts are completely
dissolved. Another alkaline bath is composed thus : — Water, 10 ;
ammonia, 3; acetate of copper, 2. Water, 16; cyanide of potas-
sium, 3 ; of soda, 4 ; sulphate of soda, 2.

After removal from the alkaline bath, the roller is washed and
rubbed with rottenstone. If the iron in any place shows through
the film of copper, the roller is returned to the bath until the entire
surface is covered. This first coat should be perfect, but as thin as
possible. When that result is attained, the roller is well brushed,
washed, and rinsed in slightly acidulated water. It is then plunged
quickly into an acid bath of sulphate of copper, in which it is left
until the deposit of copper is sufficiently thick, being turned partly
round each day so as to insure an even deposit. With the current
of four elements, and at a moderate temi:)erature, three to four
weeks are required to effect a deposit of ;j of a millimetre in thick- '
ness.

The strength of the solution of sulphate of copper is represented
by 20° Beaume, in which 1 quart of sulpluiric acid is added to
everj^ 300 quarts of solxition, to render the bath more condiicting
and to assist the dissolution of the scraj) copper thrown in to keep
up the strength of the bath.

E. S.

rOEEIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 427

Cultivation of the Sugar-cane in Spain. By M. Grand.

(Mumoires de la Societe des Ingenieurs Civils, April 1874, pp. 2GC-269.)

The cultivation of the sugar-cane in the 37th degree of north
latitude would appear very remarkaLle to any one unacquainted
with the peculiar climatic conditions which render it practicable.
That portion of the coast of Andalusia which permits of the
growth of the sugar-cane is comprised between the 36th and the
37th degrees of north latitude. At a certain distance from the sea
a chain of mountains runs parallel to the coast and forms a shelter
from the north Avinds. The evil effects of a short frost, which
occurs once in seven or eight years, are avoided by cutting the
cane somewhat earlier in the season than usual. The geographical
position of this part of Andalusia enables it to command a
great amount of solar heat. As, in addition to a warm climate,
a certain degree of humidity is requisite for the growth of the
cane, artificial irrigation is resorted to when the natural sources
fail. Of the three varieties of canes, that known as American is
the best, and is fast superseding the others in all the new planta-
tions. From seven to eight years constitute the productive life
of the sugar-cane. The planting is performed by cutting slijDS.
from sound canes of the previous year and placing them hori-
zontally end to end in two rows at the bottom of broad furrows.
This operation takes place in May. In October the cane turns
yellow, in the following Februar}^ it arrives at maturity, and it is
hai'vested in the three succeeding months.

Irrigation is indispeiisable during the dry season, which lasts
for three or four months, and as nearly 1,000,000 gallons of water
are required for each acre of land, the construction of reservoirs
is frequently necessary. The sugar-cane is a very exhausting
crop, so that proper manuring of the soil is a subject of great
importance. Farm-yard manure, mixed with the refuse of the last
crop, is used when the harvest is annual, but when biennial,
guano is preferred for the second year. About 12 tons of farm
manure per acre is the quantit}^ used. The annual crop per acre
averages 20 tons, the biennial 30 tons. The selling price is 36s.
per ton.

Those engaged in cultivating the sugar-cane in Andalusia are
well aware of the limited area uj^on which it can be grown, and
have recently turned their attention towards the introduction of
lieetroot, as a substitute for the more delicate and susceptible
plant. Some experiments have been made with a view to its
acclimatisation ; so that by causing the crops to come to maturity
at different times of the year the working plant and factories
would be utilised to a maximum. M. Grand is of opinion that
by judicious management, in advancing one croj) and retarding:
another, this object might be effected.

C, T.

428 ABSTRACTS OF TAPERS IN

On the Multiple System of Signalling.

(Annales Telegraphiques, Sept.-Oct. 187-4, pp. 187-224.)

In every system of transmission, the line wire remains unoccupied
■«lixring that fraction of time between the signals which is more than
necessary for the discharge of the wire. The consequent loss of time
becomes considerable where the rate of transmission depends upon
the quickness of manipulation ; because the time required for the
mechanical operation of signalling is greater than that required by
the current to pass and reproduce the signals : e.g., the greatest
number of dashes that an operator can send per second is five, while
the wire can take and reproduce distinctly a much larger number.

To utilise these intervals is the aim of the Multiple System ;
which term implies the connection of more than one communicating
post through the same line wire, each working simultaneously
with, but independently of the other.

Take, for instance, two places communicating by the Morse
system, and sending dots and dashes ; between each of these
signals the wires, being free, may be detached from the first pair
of instruments, and when connected with a second pair, may send
during the time of contact a dot or a dash.

If each pair of instruments has an interval sufficient for the
longest signal (a dash), two distinct messages can be sent in the
same time, these messages being not simultaneous, but successive.

Another method consists of spacing regularly, not the elementary
signals, but the letters, by allowing for each letter an interval long
enough for the longest {ch).

If an interval sufficient for the longest signal or letter is
allowed for each, and between two successive signals an interval is
left sufficient for n — 1 dashes, or between two letters an interval
for n — 1 times the longest letter in the alphabet {ch), then during
each part of an interval sufficient for a dash or ch, the terminals
can be connected with a new pair of instruments, and the trans-
mission of n distinct messages may be obtained in the time re-
quired for the single original message, while at the n communi-
cating places, or posts, each sender and receiver will have at their
disposal an amount of time which is at least n times longer than
that required for the passage of the currents.

In principle, this system of multiple signalling is inferior to'
that of prepared messages, in which a complete separation is made
between the personal work and the signalling proper, and where,
in fact, each signal only takes up the time absolutely necessary for
the passage of the currents. In the multiple sj'stem, the dot takes
as long as the dash, and the shortest letter as long as the longest ;
the system of prepared messages therefore must be more economical
of time, in the proportion of 2 to 1, that is of the longest letter (cli)
to one of mean length (?t).

To make the most out of the multiple system, this subdivision of
time must be the shortest possible, and the number of signals passed
during it the greatest. Suppose one clerk makes five dashes in a

rOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 42&

second, ho Avill take ;? of a second to make the longest letter, and

■will send seventy-five letters a minnto ; each subdivision, therefore,

Avonld be cqxial to -J- of a minute. The number of distinct signals

that can be transmitted in that time depends upon the electrical

state of the line. Suppose the number of dashes the wire will trans-

N
mit, clearly, per second to be equal to N : then — is the number

of clerks who can work at each end of the same wire.

Although the system of multiple signalling is disadvantagoiis,
as compared with prepared messages, in so far as it requires an
absolute synchronism between the corresponding stations, yet it
possesses advantages in the facility given to each clerk for repeat-
ing, rectifying, and altering each individual message ; while the
manager is enabled more easily to proportion his staff to the
varying requirements at different hours in the day ; and there are
greater facilities for corresponding from one central station to
several outlying stations.

In the two machines known as the Eouvier and the Meyer,
there must bo at each end of the wire commutators moving in abso-
lute sj-nchronism, and the personal work, or signalling, must be
subordinate to the motions of these commutators. In the Eouvier
system the synchronism is obtained by pendulums, one at each
end of the line, of equal length, oscillating between electro-magnets,
which are actuated by make and break arrangements. The action
is briefly as follows ; each pendulum, towards the end of its stroke,
makes a contact, by which the current in the line wdre closes local
circuits. These acting on an electro-magnet at each end, attract
each pendulum during the fraction of its course which is reserved
for correcting any departure from synchronism, until, by a second
simultaneous contact of the j^endulums, the line wire is insulated,
the local circuits are opened, and the pendulums free to fall. Biit
if this second contact of the two pendulums is not simultaneous,
a current still passes in the line wire, the local circuit remains
closed, and that pendulum which is in advance is retained till the
other has come up to it.

Suppose it is required to work Eouvier's system of multijDle
signalling between two stations, and, for simplicity, let it be

Fig. 1.

z ^ n, I ~~ — ^^ ; I

i i : : ! i

I [^:::::::: ; ■

I V11^1L^"^Vl/l^_l^^/-.M'-II-._lllJIir_ll.IIIimiWL^ 1111. .1. J

supposed that there are only two independent communicating
posts. Take a plane, as shown in Fig. 1, parallel to the plane of"

430 ABSTRACTS OF PAPEES IN

oscillation of the pendulum. Between the limits X Y eight triple
contacts, insulated from each other, are disposed nearly as shown,
and similarly between Z V. The surfaces of their contacts are con-
centric round the centre of oscillation of the pendulum, those
between Z V are similarly situated radially to those between X Y,
and their lengths are proportioned to the distance from the centre
of oscillation. The groups between XY are connected with the
groups between Z V, so that a No. 1 of X Y on the right is joined
to a No. 1 of Z V on the left, and similarly for the contacts h and c.
All the contacts of the c rows have earth connection, and those of
the a and b rows are connected with the signalling levers.

The pendulum has two sliding contacts, one for the row X Y
and one for Z V, which come into work at alternate oscillations ;
from right to left the sliding contact for X Y comes into circuit,
and from left to right that for Z V.

At each station all the contacts with odd numbers are in connec-
tion with the levers of a manipulator No. 1 for one post, and those
wdth even numbers with the levers of a manipulator No. 1 for the
other post. Thus at either station the pendulums have similar con-
tacts at the same moment and for the same time, and in each oscil-
lation each post of stations has its communication made and broken
four times. Each manipulator is furnished with four pairs of levers,
each pair being in connection with one of the contact groups of its
series. Take group I. of series X Y or Z V, according as the oscil-
lation is commencing from the left or the right. It has been
shown that the similar contacts a of these groups are connected,
the same being the case with the contacts b ; a is joined to the
lever I (Fig. 2, which is a diagram of any one pair of levers of a
manipulator), and oscillates round c between the limits p, r ; while

Fig. 2.

X p^

■----3'

1) is similarly joined to the lever V, and oscillates between the
limits p', »•'. The springs n and n' tend to keep the ends m and in'
in contact with r and r' ; r is in connection with the receiver of
No. 1 post, p with the line battery, r' with the lever I, and p' is
insulated, and similarly for the odd-numbered groups. In the
same way even-numbered groups are connected to four pairs of
levers forming the manipulators of No. 2 post, and communicating

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 431

with the receiver of this post. The connections at the other station
are similar.

If, then, at the commencement of an oscillation, the lever I
alone is pressed down, the current passes through both a and 6,
and thence to the receiving station, during the whole time the
gliding contact of the pendulum is on them, and a dash is made.
If both I and V are pressed down, the current passes through a only,
and a dot is made. As there are four such pairs, four dots or four
dashes, or any combination of them, i.e., any letter of the Morse
alphabet, can be made by each post during each oscillation.
Usually templates are employed, one for each letter, so cut as to
press down the proper levers, and these are worked from a conve-
nient key- board. The line is discharged at each alternation of
instruments b}- the passage of the pendiilums over the earth
contacts c. In length these arc made equal to a dot, which is the
least space possible between two letters.

Another advantage of this system is that, time being given for
demagnetisation, the inertia of the electro-magnets is only felt
during the magnetisation. Following out this system, three key-
boards can be worked on one line wire. It will likewise be seen
that Steinheil's alphabet is applicable, on account of its shortness,
because it is formed by a combination of signals of the same length
(dots), from alternating currents, the negative being received on
one strip of paper, and the positive parallel to it on another strip.
In this case each lever of the sender must be a double one, and
each receiver must have two polarised relays, one working to a
positive and the other to a negative current. Meyer's system dif-
fers from Eouvier's in this respect, that the time of signalling each
letter is that of the longest letter. The synchronism is obtained by
a conical pendulum with an elastic spindle, which was fully de-
scribed at p. 49 of the previous number of " Annales Telegraphiques."

An apparatus for quadru^ile signalling, that is with four posts
on the same line, is described as follows : — Suppose at each end of
the line a circular dial is divided into four equal parts, with a
needle moving round it. If the needles move in synchronism,
and start from corresponding points, they will always be at
any moment on corresponding divisions ; so if each quadrant at
each station is in connection with a signalling post, the corre-
sponding posts at the two stations will be successively and regularly
in communication. The distributor K (Fig. 3) arranges the
due distribution of the current both on the receivers at the sig-
nalling station and on those of the receiving station, so that the
meb|sages are reproduced at each. It consists of an ebony wheel
divided into four quadrants, each of which is subdivided into
twelve parts ; each part consists of a sector of copper let into the
ebonite, while a small interval separates the sectors. The first
sector answers to a dot; the first and second together, to a dash;
the third is an earth contact, which separates the individtial sig-
nals oi which each letter is composed. This group of three sectors
is repeated four times in the same order in each quadrant. Thus

432

ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

each quadrant contains tlie elements of each letter of the Morse
alphabet.

The traversing needle, which is actuated by clockwork, commu-
nicates permanently through its axis with the line wire, and makes
contact with each individual sector while passing over it. Thus if a
sector is at the same time connected with the line battery a dot is
sent, and if two consecutive ones are so connected a dash is sent ;
and each time the needle passes the third sector it is discharged
into the earth, and prepared for the next signal.

There are four key-boards, one for each quadrant. Each key-
board has four white keys for the dashes and four black ones for the
dots. There is a key -board for each quadrant, and each key works
a lever : that of the first black key is connected by an insulated A
wire with the first sector of the quadrant, that of the first white "
key with the second sector, and similarly for the second, third, and
fourth black and white keys of each key-board, and the second,
third, and fourth group of sectors in the corresponding quadrant.

Each lever serves to make contact with the batter}^ P, and th(
earth T ; but on depressing the first black key a current is sent froi
the battery into the first sector of each group, and makes a dot; while^
the white key sends it at once into the two first, and makes a dash.
Depressing both keys produces the same effect as dej)ressing the
white key alone. Eig. 3 shows this arrangement: the black key,-

Fig. 3.

when not Ijeing worked, does not communicate directly with the
earth, but through contact A and the white key ; and when the
black key is depressed, the connection of it with the white key is
broken. When it makes contact with A, the line current, passing-
through the first sector, goes to earth through A and the earth-
plate of the white key. Each clerk has three-quarters of the
duration of one revolution to prepare his letter on the key-board,
and an oral signal duly informs him when his turn conies.

The electro-magnets of the receiving instriiment (a printing one)
are worked by a polarised relay, in such a way that the circuit
from the local battery is always closed except when a line current
passes ; this opens the circuit, demagnetises the instruments, and by

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 433

ordinary mechauism presses the papers against the inkiug rollers.
In the present instance, where there are four rollers, and four
strips of paper to receive the message passing under them, arrange-
ments have to be made that only one of these receives the message.
This is done in the following way : —

Take a cylinder 0 • 2 metre long, on which is cut in relief a screw
thread having a pitch equal to the length of the cylinder ; this is
divided into four lengths of 0-05 metre each. These are spaced
equally at convenient distances along the same axis, but preserve
their relative position ; that is, on a plane perpendicular to the axis,
the four qiiarter threads show as a complete circle. The transverse
axis of these quarter screws becomes the axis of the needle which
traverses the distributing dial, and. the position of this needle in
its passage over one of the quadrants corresponds to the position
of one of these quarter screw threads with regard to one of the
four strips of paper, so that on the passage of a line ciu-rent it
is this strip that receives the impression and no other.

The plane of the paper being a tangent to the surface of the
screw thread, the fractions of the quarter revolution during which
they are in contact are accurately represented by the lengths and
positions of the lines on the paper, contact during the whole
<piarter revolution producing a line of 0-05 metre across the strips
of paper.

The contacts depending both as to length and frequency on the
line currents, and these on the manipulation of the key-boards, it
will be readily seen how, on pressing down, say the two first white
keys and the two last black keys, during the passage of the
tlistributing needle over a,uj one quadrant at one end of the wire,
two dashes followed by two dots will be presented by the corre-
sponding roller at the other end. A sound -signal also duly gives
notice to each clerk when his particular receiving instrument is on.

When the synchronism is perfect, the successive rows of printed
•letters form a column parallel to the sides of the strip of paper,
each letter being about 3 millimetres distant from its forerunner.
To keep this synchronism perfect — for slight errors would quickly
accumulate if the conical revolving pendulums were left to them-
selves—a special arrangement, as in Eouvier's system, has to be
made. For this purpose a small fraction of the circumference of
4?ach distributor, about one-twelfth, is reserved for correction;
the other division of the distributing dial and the screw threads
<'f the receiver being modified to allow of this.

The correcting machinery is at one end only of the line ; from the
other end, dxiring the ' correcting interval,' a current goes, is received
in the polarised relay, and runs to earth through an independent
*ilcctro-magnet, E. To insure that this earth connection should
not be oi)en except during this interval is one of the duties of the
clockwork of the correcting machinery. As the rate at which the
regulating pendulum revolves depends upon the tension of its
elastic spindle, a clockwork movement can be made slightly to
tighten this during one-half the interval, and lengthen it again

[1874-75. N.S.] 2 F

434 ABSTPxACTS OF PAPERS IN

during the other half. Suppose this tightening a.nd slackening
to be transmitted from the clockwork to the pendulum spindle
through a connection formed by the magnetisation of the electro-
magnet E ; then, if the time of tightening is equal to the time
of slackening, Avhich is the case when the movements of the
distributing needles at each end are synchronous, no change takes
place in the mean rate of revolution. But if the tightening
machinery is coupled to the pendulum spindle for a shorter
period than the slackening machinery, the pendulum will make its
revolution a fraction slower.

It will be seen that in this system of printing the messages, the
different combinations to form a letter need not be dependent
simply on their size and number, as in the ordinary Morse alphabet,
but also on their relative position and distance from each other.
Hence, an immense number of additional signals can be made.
The duty done by a multiple signalling apparatus is easily ob-
tained from the number of turns per minute made by the dis-
tributor, and the niimber of posts in communication through the
same wire ; for instance, an apparatus for four pairs of posts making
75 turns jjer minute will make 300 letters per minute, leaving
an interval equal to a letter between each word. A word may be
taken as consisting of 6 letters, equal to 50 words per minute and
3,000 per hour; and if a message be taken as consisting of 30'
words, 100 single messages per hour may be counted on.

This result has been verified by practice between Paris and
Lyons. Each clerk sends 22 to 25 messages per hour, giving 88 to
100 as the number sent by the single wire. The number has been
raised to 110 per hour per wire by increasing the revolutions of
the distributor to 85. This is more than twice the result obtained
by the Hughes apparatus, the number of clerks being equal.

An ajDparatus for six double posts is now being made between
Paris and Lyons, and one between Paris and Marseilles, to work
at 65 revolutions per minute.

F. ^\\

Freezing hy CcqnIIarij Attraction comhined with Evaporation.

By M. C. Deciiarme, Professor of Phj-sics at the Lyce'e of Augers.
(Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Oct. 1874, pp. 236-2G7, 2 iil.)

The Author, after describing at some length his experiments
with highly volatile fluids, gives the following resume. When
one extremity of a porous body, such as blotting-paper, is immersed
in a highly volatile liquid, such as bisulphide of carbon, capillary
action at first causes the liquid to rise about an inch on the
paper ; evaporation then arrests the upward motion, by producing
so great a fall of temperature that atmospheric vapour congeals
upon the paper in varioTLs arborescent forms, until the fluid has-

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 435

become exliausted. One of the results of tliis observation is, to
provide a simple process for ascertaiuing at all times, in the open
sunshine, in a room, or in a closed vessel, the presence of vapour
in the surrounding atmosphere, and its relative or absolute quantity.
On the 13th of July, 1874, in the open sunshine, the tempera-
ture being 105° Falir. (40° -6 C), with a slight north-west wind
and the barometer at 29-98 inches (760-5 millimetres), arbor-
escents were formed upon the porous papers, similar to those
observed on damp days in autumn or in spring.

When a scroll of blotting-paper is dipped into the bisulphide
of carbon and immediately Avithdrawn, the zone of rime forms in
twenty or thirty seconds (sometimes less), increases for one minute,
and melts. This method of ascertaining instantaneously, even in
the sun, the presence of vapour in the atmosphere, presents during
a fog still more decided phenomena. It is a hygroscope not only
of great simplicity, but capable of being rendered very accurate.

The experiments have also furnished a new means of artificially
freezing water. In order to operate rapidly, it is sufficient to
envelop with blotting-paper a small glass tube, about the size of a
quill, containing an inch, in height of water, to plunge it into the
bisulphide of carbon, and withdraw it immediately: freezing takes
place in two minutes at an air temperature of 59° Fahr. (15° C.).
When put under a suitable microscope the operation of congelation
can actually be followed with the eye — Nature, as it were, can be
seen at work, and it is plain that the arborescents are not produced
by a hydrate of the substance, but simply by a congelation of the
vapour in the atmosphere. Substances dissolved in the bisulphide
of carbon, such as sulphur, iodide, bromide, &c., do not obstruct the
process of congelation, but modify its eifects in their own specific
manner. Amongst the substances of which the boiling point is
low, the following have given frozen arborescents, white or coloured,
according to the nature of the liquid: bisulphide of carbon, chloro-
form, sulphuric ether, hydrochloric ether, hydrobromic ether, hy-
driodic ether, and super-hydrochloric ether (chlorhydrique chlore).

J. D. L.

Mechanical Production of Cold hj the Eximnsion of Air.

By Jules ARME^JGAUD, jun.

(Annales Industrielles, June, July, and August, 1874, 34 cols.)

The whole theory is deduced from the formula3 (1) and (2) of
Thermodynamics.

I P^

~ — = E, or p D = K (a -f- <), in French units = R t
a -|- t

, ^ .-3- = E,or»v = E(a + <-32°),inEnsli8hunits = RTl
a-\- I — ij-

2 F 2

(1)

436 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN

1 7^ V

In wliic"h - is tlie coefficient of exioansion for air, E — ——^
a a

= 29 '27 in French units, or 53-1 in English units, Vq being the

volume of a unit of air, in weight, at the temperature of melting

ice, ^0 the pressure of one atmosphere, t the absolute initial

temperature.

in which c,, is the specific heat of air with a constant pressure, and
c„ the specific heat of air with a constant volume.

The fall of temperature resulting from the mechanical expan-
sion of a gas is expressed by,

V c

— being denoted byz, and n being -^ — 1 = 0*41.

If f = + 20° centigrade = -j- 68° Fahrenheit, and z = 2, f - t^
= 72° centigrade, or 161°' 6 Fahrenheit.

As a unit of weight of air in passing from t to t^, under a con-
stant pressi;re, f, will absorb a quantity of heat c^ (t — t{).

A unit of weight of air which has done work in proportion to
an expansion z produces C negative thermal units

" > 2'

When z = 2 C = 17-2 French cold units, or C = 31 English
units of cold.

The motive power required for the mechanical production of
cold is the difference between that absorbed by the compression of
the air and that restored during its re-expansion. The amount of
work absorbed by the compression will be different, according as
the cooling of the air takes jAsice after its compression, or while
compression is going on. When the air is cooled after comjiression
in a condenser the work /„ expended by the compression of a unit
of weight of air is shown to be

The total work in]]the compression cylinder is also shown to be

in which A is the inverse of J, the mechanical equivalent of heat ;
pv^ is the work absorbed in compressing the unit of air in the
condenser, v^ being the volume of the air after being compressed
to a pressure p ; and p^ v^ is the work resulting from the counter-

FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 437

pressure of the atmospliere on the free face of tlie piston, v.^ "being
the volume of a unit of air at the pressure p^ of the atmosphere.

AVhen z = 2F,= 9,677 kilogrammctres. F, = 31,860 foot pounds.

"When the air is cooled during compression so that the tem-
perature remains constant, the work /, required for compression is
given by the formula which is used for the steam-engine :

/(, =pv'L^ = j}vLz" + ' = RtL2" + ^

in which L denotes the Naperian or hyperbolic logarithm.

To obtain the eifective work F, the work of compression p v and
of counter-pressure p^ v.2 must be added and subtracted. But as
the temperature is constant these are equal to each other ; and
therefore F" = /*, whence

F. = EtL2» + \
When z = 2,F,= 8,385 kilogrammctres. F, = 27,527 footpounds.
The work restored during expansion is shown to be

/. = ^a-<.), = |<i-^)

and since it is equal to the internal heat which has disappeared,
2> V must be added to /„ and p^ v^^ must be subtracted from it to
obtain the total work F^; whence

When 2 = 2, F^ = 7,288 kilogrammctres. F,, = 23,941 foot pounds.

The total motive force T„, when cooling takes place after com-
pression, is shown to be

T = F - F,

When 2 = 2, To = 2,385 kilogrammctres. T„ = 7,901 foot pounds.

The comparison of T„ with the number of cold units produced,
shows that

T z" — 1

_»orJ,= -^_.= J(2"-1).

J J being the number of kilogrammctres or foot pounds that mu.st
be expended to obtain a negative thermal unit.

When z = 2, Jj = 139 kilogrammctres = 253-2 foot pounds.

The total motive force T^, when cooling takes place during com-
pression, is shown to be

When 2 = 2,T, = 1,097 kilogrammctres. T^ = 3,590 foot pounds.

438 ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS IN FOREIGN TRANSACTIONS, ETC.
In this case _ , 1

IT or J^ = J-

When 2 = 2, J/ = 64 kilogrammetres. J^ = 116 foot pounds.

The variation of Jy with the expansion is fullj'- discussed in the
original Pajaer, It is also shown that, when the cooling of the
air takes place during its compression, the work expended is
50 per cent." less than when cooling takes place after its com-
pression.

S. D.

439

INDEX

TO THE

MINUTES OF PEOCEEDINGS,
1874-75.— Part I.

Aberdeen-, the New South Breakwater at, 126. Vide Breakwater.
Abernethy, J., remarks as to the New South Breakwater, Aberdeen, 154.
Abstracts of information from foreign transactions and periodicals, 301. — Ditto,

referred to in the annual report, 171.
Accounts, auditors of, appointed, 160. — Eeview of the financial position of the
Institution in the annual report, with statement of the trust and other funds
belonging to, or imder the charge of, the corporation, 166. — Abstract of
receipts and expenditure from the 1st of December, 1873, to the 30th of
November, 1874, 174.
Agriculture, utilisation of sewer water of Paris for, 380.
Aigner, A., deep boring aj^paratus in the Hazelgebii'g, 408.
Air, mechanical production of cold by the expansion of, 435.

, on the flow of atmospheric, 370.

— , results of experimental researches on the discharge of, under great pressures,

375.
Airy, Sir G. B., remarks as to the possible relation between the spots on the sun
and tlie amount of rainfall, 38. — Ditto as to the black-bulb thermometer readings,
at the Koyal Observatory at Greenwich, to ascertain the intensity of radiant
Jieat, 38. — Ditto as to the general correspondence of high readings of the black-
bulb thermometer and large rainfalls, 39.
Aiken, R., remarks as to the rainfall in India, 43. — Ditto as to the Vehar Lake,
near Bombay, and tlie annual rainfall of that district, 43. — Ditto as to the
height of water at various times in the Vehar Lake, 45.
Algeria, narrow-gauge railways in, 338. Vide Railways.

. FuZe Che'litr.

Allan, J., decease of, 165. — Memoir of, 283.

An.bajhari, old reservoir of, 2. Vide Waterworks.

Aiterican railway construction and management, remarks on, 62, Vide Railroads.

Anaual General Meeting, 160. — Annual report, 162. — Ditto read and ordered to

b? printed, 160. Vide Report.
Arches, striking the centres of — slack-blocks and sand-boxes, 319.
Arcs, joining of inclined lines by parabolic, 304.

Armengaud, J., mechanical production of cold by the expansion of air, 435,
Arnstrong, W. Y., Miller prize awarded to, 169, 179.

Art.Uery — experimental and geometrical investigation of internal tellistics, 422.
Aucenet, M., surface condensers, 399.

440 INDEX.

Baggallay, H. C, elected associate, 124,

Bain, D, B., elected associate, 124.

Baker, J., admitted student, 125.

Balguerie, A., on the tendency of the reversing lever of locomotives to " return,
suddenly " when being pulled over, 349.

Ballistics, experimental and geometrical investigation of internal, 422,

Barbadoes, rainfall at, referred to, 52.

Barlow, W. H., Vice-President, remarks as to the Pennsylvania railroad, 195.

Barret, M., the combustion of petroleum oils, 412.

Bateman, J. F., Vice-President, remarks as to the Nagpur waterworks, 32. —
Ditto as to the rainfall in various parts of England as comimved with India, 33,
— Ditto, ditto in Scotland, 33. — Ditto as to the dimensions of bridges with flood*
passing beneath them, 33. — Ditto as to storage of water in England, 34.—
Ditto as to evaporation in England, 34.

Batten, W. T., admitted student, 125,

Bay, C. S. de, elected associate, 124,

Baylis, H., decease of, 165,

Baynes, D. S., elected associate, 124.

Beas, new piers for the bridges over the river, 212.

Belgrand, M., rainfall of the basin of the Seine, 364,

Bell, A. W. D., admitted student, 125.

, T. (Bristol), decease of, 165,

Benson, Sir J., decease of, 165.

Berkley, G., remarks as to the Pullman car, 113. — Ditto as to the cost of the
Pennsylvania railroad, 114.

Bigsby, G., Lieut., R.E., decease of, 165. — Memoir of, 285.

Binnie, A. R., " The Nagpur waterworks ; with observations on the rainfall, the
flow from the ground, and evaporation at Nagpur ; and on the fluctuation of
rainfall in India and in other places," 1. — Eemarks as to ditto, their construction,,
capacity, aud supply, 54. — Ditto as to reservoirs and rainfall in India, 55. —
Ditto as to analysis of rainfall at Calcutta, 56. — Ditto as to evaporation :ii

• India, 57. — Ditto as to the sun-spot theory in connection with rainfall, 58,

Black, G., decease of, 165.

Blackburue, J. W., decease of, 165.

Blandford, H. F., remarks as to the rainfall in Calcutta and at Nagpur, 59,

Blast-furnace or cupola castings, respective merits of, 416,

charges, on the size of, 418,

Blonay, M. de, graphical determination of the weights, for a given span and
strain, which a double T"ii"oii can support, 303. Vide "Y-iron.

Boilers, evaporation in steam, decreasing in geometrical progression, 398,

Bombay, rainfall of, referred to, 11.

Boring, deep, apparatus in the Ha.selgebirg, 408.

Bovey, H. T., admitted student, 125,

Bmmwell, F. J., remarks as to locomotive fire-boxes in the United States, 96.

Breakwater, " ThelNew South breakwater at Aberdeen," 126.— Its objects, 136.—
Concrete foundations, 126.— Sea staging, 127.— Sea- staging cranes, ISO.—
Concrete-building in frames, 131.— Means used to exclude the tide from the
unset concrete, 132.— Concrete apron, 134.— Description of box for dischaigiug
bags of concrete, 135,— Head of breakwater, 136.— Diving, 136.— Concrete
blocks, 137.— Concrete-making, 138,— Cement, 138, — Progress and cost, 139,

Brebner, J., elected associate, 124.

INDEX. 441

Bridge, Coatesville, United States, referred to, 66. — ]\Iount Union, ditto, 66. —
Susquehanna river, ditto, 66.

over the Elbe at Aussig, Austrian North-Western railway, 322.

, reconstruction of the Chateau-Gontier, 392.

, traversing, for crossing the harbour entrance between S. Malo and

S. Servan, 3'J4.

Bridges, on the distribution of loads over the superstructure of, 301.

on the Pennsylvania railroad, 65, et »eq.

, '' The implements employed, and the stone protection adopted, in the

reconstruction of the bridges on the Delhi railway," 212. — Serious disasters
caused to bridges by the heavy floods of 1871-72, 212. — The new piers for the
rivers Beas and Sutlej, 212. — Operation of Bull's dredger, 213. — Progress of
sinking at the Sutlej, 214. — Excavator for deep well foundations introduced
by Mr. Ives, 214. — The stone protection carried out at the bridge over the
Jumna, 215.

-, upriglit arched, 320.

Bristol port and channel dock, alluded to, 150.

Broad, R., decease of, 165.

Brooke, S., Captain, E.E., remarks as to the cost of constructing the Nagpi'tr
waterworks, 53.

Browne, J., Major, R.E., Telford premium awarded to, 169, 178.

Browning, F. R., resignation of, 165.

, H. B., resignation of, 165.

, T. G., decease of, 165. — Memoir of, 286.

Brunlees, J., remarks as to the use of concrete blocks at the Aberdeen break-
water, 149. — Ditto as to the use of cement concrete for the dock at the mouth
of the Avon, 149.

Buist, Dr., his "Manual of Physical Researcli for India" referred to, as to
rainfall of Nagpur, 60.

Bull's dredger, used in sinking new weUs for bridges on the Delhi railway, 213.

Bnrke, F. E., elected associate, 124.

Caille, ;M., on the elasticity of permanent way, 328.

Calcutta, rainfall at, referred to, 59.

Campbell, Sir George, remarks as to the possibility of storing large quantities of
water under the conditions of soil and climate existing in India, 50. — Ditto as
to the Orissa irrigation scheme and the canal at Midnapore, 51.

Canal, Dalsland, 199. Vide Sweden.

, Gotha, 198. Vide Sweden.

, Gravelle lock on the St. Maurice, 389.

, Mosel-Saar, 388.

Cantopher, B. "W., admitted student, vi.

Castings, blast-furnace or cupola, respective merits of, 416.

Catalogue of engineering information, suggestions for, in the annual report, 172.

Cay, W. D., " The New South Breakwater at Aberdeen," 126.— Remarks as to
the staging, 155. — Ditto as to the revised statement of the work and expendi-
ture, 155. — Ditto as to the excavation for the foundations, 156. — Ditto as to
the proposed extension of the North pier, 157.

Cement. Vide Breakwater, and Jetty.

Centres of arches, striking the — slack-blocks and sand-boxes, 319.

442 INDEX.

•Chambers, H. P., admitted student, vi.

Chatelier, M. Le, locomotive engines on inclined planes, 342.

Che'liff, damming of the, 390.

•Clark, J., elected associate, 124.

Clay mountains, on the drainage of, 309.

Coal mine, the burning, at Kidder Slope, 411.

Cold, mechanical production of, by the expansion of air, 435. Vide also Freezing.

Cole, G. F., elected associate, 124.

Combustion, the, of petroleum oils, 412.

Concan district, Col. Fyfe's experiments on evaporation in the, referred to, 48.

Concrete, — foundations, building in frames, apron, blocks, mixing, etc. Vide

Breakwater, and Jetty.
Condensers, surface, 399.

Coute-Grandchamps, M., road-making in the Basscs-P3'renees, 316.
■Coode, Sir J., remarks as to the use of Portland-cement concrete for the external

work of sea piers, 159.
Coryell, M., the burning coal mine at Kidder Slope, 411.
■Cotton, General F., remarks as to the possibility of storing water in India, 51. —

Ditto as to the utilisation of the waters of the Viga, 51.
Council, list of members nominated as suitable to fill the several offices in the,

read, IGO. — Ballot for, 1 60. — Annual report of, read and ordered to be printed,

160. — Vote of thanks to, 160. — List of Council and officers for session, 1874-75,

161, 190.
•Cousens, C. B., resignation of, 165.
Cowper, E. A., remarks as to the chilled cast-iron wheels on American railroads,

115. — Ditto as to steel boilers and steel tires of driving wheels, 116.
Cranes, sea-staging. Vide Breakwater.

Croes, J. J. R., flow of the west branch of tho Croton river, 367.
Crosley, W., decease of, 165.
Croton river, flow of the west branch of the, 367.
Cubitt, J., memoir of, 248.

Cupola or blast-furnace castings, respective merits of, 416.
Ourry, M., jun.. Miller prize awarded to, 169, 179.

Daglish, R., transferred member, vi.

Dalsland canal, 199. Vide Sweden, engineering in.

Damming of the ChelifF, 390.

Dautzic, drainage system of, 379.

Dardart, M., Gravelle lock on the St. Maurice canal, 389.

Davis, A., elected associate, 124.

Deccan district. Colonel Fyfe's experiments on evaporation in the, referred to, 48.

Decharme, M. C, freezing by capillary attraction combined with evaporation, 434.

Delaire, M. A., the hydrology of the basin of the Seine, 365.

Delhi railway, the implements employed, and the stone protection adopted, in the
reconstruction of tlie bridges on the, 212.

Delprat, J. P., relation between water levels of main rivers in Holland, 368.

Dines, G., remarks as to his experiments on the subject of evaporation, 40. — Ditto
as to the amount of evaporation in tropical countries being over-estimated, 41 . —
Ditto as to high temperatures retarding rather than promoting evaporation, 41.
— Ditto as to experiments on evaporation by Mr. Greaves at the East Londori
waterworks, 42. — Ditto as to the London rainfall for sixty years, 42.

INDEX. 443

Diving, 13G. Vide Breakwater, ami Jetty.

Dobson, G. C, decease of, 105.

Doruing, H., admitted student, 125.

Douglass, W., Telford premium awarded to, 169, 178.

Drainage of clay mountains, on the, 309. — Ditto of bank slips, 310. — Ditto of

slips in cuttings, 311.

system of Dantzic, 379.

of Paris, 380.

Dredger, Bull's, used in siidiiug wells for bridges on the Delhi railway, 213,
Dresden, observations on subterraneiiu water in, 3G9.

waterworks, 383.

Dundas, R., elected member, 124.
Dunn, J. B., decease of, 165.

, T. E., transferred member, 125.

Diuand-Claye, 31. A., utilisation of the sewer water of Paris for agricultural pur-

l)oses, 380.

Eads, J. B., on upiigbt arched bridges, 320.

Earthworks, " Notes on the consolidation of Earthworks," 218. — The case of a
cutting or a tunnel in rock, 218. — Thrust of earth against, or the stability of,
retaining walls, 219. — Tunnels and overhead strutting, 221. — Inclined walls and
strutted sides, 222, 223.— Physical causes of landslips 223.— Cuttings, 227.—
Pipe drainage, 231. — Filters, 235. — Restoring cuttings after landslips, 236. —
The consolidation of embankments, 239. — Yielding foundations, 240. — Sliding
embankments, 242. — The repaii's of fallen embankments, 244.

Ebor«ll, C. W., decease of, 165.— Memoir of, 287.

Electro-coppered cast-iron cylinders, on the employment of, for printing on stuffs,
425.

Ellice-Clark, E. B., elected associate, 124.

Elliot, R., decease of, 165.

Embankment, Chelsea, price of concrete for, 151.

Ergastiria, narrow-gauge railway at, 338. Vide Railways, narrow-gauge.

Estall, G., elected associate, 124.

Evaporation, freezing by capillary attraction combined with, 434.

in India. Vide Waterworks.

in steam boilers decreasing in geometrical j^rogression, 398.

Excavator for deep well foundations introduced by R. J. Ives, 214,
Explosive substances, experimental researches on, 423.

Eyles, G. L., elected associate, 124.

Fairbaim, Sir W., Bart., decease of, 165. — Memoir of, 251.

Fairlie engine for mountain railways, referred to, 336.

Farewell, C. W. F., admitted student, 125.

Fenwick, C. R., elected associate, 124.

Fernie, J., remarks as to the use of steel on the Pennsylvania railroad, 110. —

Ditto as to pig iron made in the United States during 1872, 110. — Ditto as to

wheels of cast iron on United States railways. 111. — Ditto as to the use of steel

for fire-boxes, 112.
Field, R., remarks as to the want of reliable information on evaporation, 37. —

Ditto as to the means of ascertaining the real evaporation from a large surface

444- INDEX.

of water, 37. — Ditto as to the most convenient mode of calculating the evapora-
tion, 37, et seq.

Filtration, experiments on the laws of, 359.

Finances of the Institution, noticed in the annual report, 166. Tide also Accounts.

Findlay, G., elected associate, 124.

Fliegner, A., on the flow of atmospheric air, 370.

Flow from the ground and rainfall in India. Vide Waterworks.

of the west branch of the Croton river, 3G7.

Fluids, graphical determination of the hydraulic head, velocity of discharge, and
time of emptyiug of iiuids from vessels of various forms, 363.

Forbes, J. S., decease of, 165.

Forrest, J., Secretary, vote of thanks to, 161.

Foundations, concrete, 126. Vide Breakwater.

Fourcroy, M. F. de, traversing bridge for crossing the harbour entrance between
S. Malo and S. Servan, 39i.

Fox, Sir C, decease of, 165. — Memoir of, 264.

, C. D., and F. " The Pennsylvania railroad, with remarks on American railway

construction and managemeut," 62. — Kemarks as to the progress of American
railroads, 89. — Ditto as to the Pennsylvania Railroad Company's success,
and its three causes, 90. — Ditto as to the railway system of the United States
in relation to the carriage of grain, 117. — Ditto as to the cost of construction
of the Pennsylvania railroad as compared with English and Swedish lines,
117, 118. — Ditto as to the evaporative power of locomotives, 119. — Ditto as to
the employment of steel for fire-boxes, and cast iron for wheels, 120. — Ditto as
to the construction of permanent way in America, Canada, and England, 122.

, F., transferred member, vi. — The Pennsylvauia railroad, with remarks on

American railway construction and management, 62.

France, railways iu. Vide Permanent way.

Freezing by capillary attraction combined with evaporation, 434. Vide also Cold.

Frewer, C, appointed one of the scrutineers of the ballot for Council, 160. —Vote
of thanks to, 161. — Appointed one of the auditors of accounts, 160.

Fyfe, Colonel, his experiments on evaporation in the Deccan and Concan
districts, referred to, 48.

Fysou, A., Miller prize awarded to, 169, 179.

Galbraith, W. E., remarks as to earthworks on the Pennsylvania railroad, 101. —

Ditto as to the cost of railway construction in England and America, 102.
Gas and water mains, submerged, 387.
Gasholder explosions, 386.

Gaudard, J., '' Notes on the Consolidation of Earthworks," 218.
Gauges, evaporation, remarks as to the construction of, 46.
Gefle-Dala railway, working expenses on the, 98. — Gauge of, 192.
Gerstel, G., on the drainage of clay mountains, 309.
Gilchrist, W. G., elected associate, 124.

Giles, A., remarks as to the Aberdeen South breakwater, 153.
Glass, Sir E. A., decease of, 165.
Gooch, G., admitted student, vi.
Good, H. D., elected associate, 124.
Gordon, E., elected member, 124.
Gotha canal, 198. Vide Sweden.
Grand, M., cultivation of the sugar cane iu Spain, 427.

INDEX. 445

Grant, J., remarks as to the use of liquid concrete in bags, with reference to the
construction of the South breakwater, Aberdeen, 151. — Ditto as to the price of
concrete for the Chelsea embankment, 152.

Grant. J. D., elected associate, 124.

Grantham, J., decease of, 1G5. — Memoir of, 2GC.

Greaves, C, his experiments on evaporation at East London waterworks, Bow,
referred to, 42. — Kemarks as to the construction of the Nagpiir waterworks,
45. — Ditto as to evaporation and the construction of evaporation gauges, 46.

Grissell, T., decease of, 165.— Memoir of, 289.

Gun-metal, on the mechanical properties of, 421.

Gunn, W. C, analyses of American pig iron, 120. — Elected associate, 124.

Gunnery, experimental and geometrical investigation of internal ballistics, 422.

Haddon, H. E., admitted student, 125.

Hall, H. T., admitted student, 125.

Hanna, F. B., elected member, 124.

Hanoverian Machine Company's Works at Linden, 357.

Harbour, the, of Spezia, 396.

Hiirker, W., admitted student, 125.

, W., resignation of, 165.
Harris, E. L., elected associate, 124,
Harrison, A. K. C, elected member, 124.

, J. T., vote of thanks to, 160. — Appointed one of the auditors of

accounts, 160.

-, T. E., President, remarks as to the construction of the Nagpiir water-

works, 59. — Vote of thanks to, 161.
Harvey, H. B., elected associate, 124.

, W., elected associate, 124.

Havrez, P., experiments on the laws of filtration, 359. — Evaporation in steam

boilers decreasing in geometrical progression, 398.
Hawkshaw, Sir J., Past-President, remarks as to the Aberdeen Soutli breakwater,

152. — Ditto as to the size of concrete blocks at Holyhead, at Wick, and else-
where, 153.

, J. C, transferred member, vi.

Haynes, H. S. F., Lieut. R.E., elected associate, 124.

Hayter, H., appointed one of the scrutineers of the ballot for Council, 160. —

Vote of thanks to, 161.
Helhvag, W., bridge over the Elbe at Aussig, Austrian North-Western railway,

322.
Henderson, D. M., transferred member, 125.
Hervey, M. W., admitted student, 125.
Heskcth, E. L., admitted student, vi.
Hewat, W. M., elected associate, 124.
Hewson, J., elected associate, 124.
HoUingsworth, C. E., appointed one of the scrutineers of the ballot for Council,

160.— Vote of thanks to, 161.
Holmes, J. A. H., memoir of, 290.

, P. H., admitted student, vi.

Holyhead breakwater, alluded to, 153.

Homersham, S. C, remarks as to the great amount of animal life existing in

surface water impounded in reservoirs in India, 49. — Ditto as to the superiority

446 INDEX.

of subterranean water to surface water collected in sta.^nant open reservoirs, 50.

— Ditto as to the amount of t-olid matter in the Niigpiir water, 50.
Hopkins, J. I., decease of, 165. — Memoir of, 291.
Horn, W. E., elected associate, 124.
Hughes, J. D'U., decease of, 1G5.
Humble, E. B., decease of, 165.
Hutchings, H. B., admitted student, 125.
Hydraulic head, graphic determination of the, velocity of discharge, and time of

emptying of fluids from vessels of various forms, 363.

Inclined planes, locomotive engines on, 342.

India, rainfall, evaporation and flow of water from the ground in, 111, et seq.

Vide Waterworks.
Inglis, J. C, Miller prize awarded to, 169, 179.
Ingram, A. J., admitted student, 125.
Iron, analyses of American pig, 110, 120.

, inquiries into the texture of, 419.

making and mining in Sweden, with average prices of Swedish and English

iron for twenty years, 1855-74, 202. Vide also Sweden.
Ivens, F. J., elected associate, 124.
Ives, K. J., excavator for deep well foundations introduced by, 214.

Janoyer, M., inquiries into the texture of iron, 419.

Janssen, H., submerged gas and water mains, 387.

Jetty, " The extension of the South Jetty at Kustendjie, Turkey," 142. — Points that
governed the design for the extension, 142. — Concrete blocks adopted, 142. — •
Method for manufacturing and lowering the blocks, 143. — The gantry, andj
winches emploj^ed in placing them in position, 144.^ — The divers, 145. — Making]
the concrete slope at the end of the old jetty, 145. — Means employed to secure'
the end of the jetty from excessive settlement, 146.

Johnson, T. M., decease of, 165.— Memoir of, 268.

, W. K., Major, M.S.C., remarks as to the restoration and improvement of

the tank system in the Mysore country, 34.— Ditto as to the proportion of the
rainfall which on an average reached the reservoirs, 34. — Ditto as to the
collection of surface drainage, and the influence of cultivation thereon, 35. —
Ditto as to the action of tanks as flood moderators, 35.

Jones, G. A., admitted student, 125.

Jumna, bridge over the, Delhi railway, stone protection carried out at, 215.

King, F., resignation of, 165.

Kirk, A. C, Watt medal and Telford premium awarded to, 169, 178.

Knobloch, H., Mosel-Saar canal, 388.

Kustendjie, the extension of the South jetty at, 142. Vide Jetty.

Lamairesse, M., damming of the Che'liff, 390.

Lambert, W. B., decease of, 165.

Lavoinne, M., on the distribution of loads over the superstructure of bridges, 301. j

Le Chatelier, M., locomotive engines on inclined planes, 342.

Ledebur, A., respective merits of blast-furnace or cupola castings, 416.

Ledoux, C, description of some narrow-gauge railways, 338.

INDEX. 447

Legras, jr., reconstruct ion of the Cbatean-Gonticr bridge, 392.
Lloyd, S., decease of, 165. — Memoir of, 292.

, W., vote of thanks to, IGO.

Lock, Gravelle, on the St. Maurice canal, 389.

Locomotive adhesion, common error in ascertaining, available for the traction of
trains, 340.

engines on inclined planes, 342.

Locomotives withont fire, 347.

on the Pcns}'lvania railroad, 67.

, on the tendency of the reversing lever of, to " return suddenly " -when

Ijeing pulled over, 349.

and rolling stock, comparative statement of, in the United Kingdom'

in India, and in the United States, 83.
Logan, II. P. T., admitted student, 125.
Login, T., decease of, 165. — Memoir of, 269.
Longridge, M., remarks as to American railroads as compared with English,.

Indian, and Swedish, 98. — Ditto as to the working expenses and other details

of Swedis;h railway.s in 1870, 98, 99.
Loriiner, J. II., admitted student, vi.

Lucas, F., on small oscillations of a material system iu stable equilibrium, 308.
Lynde, W. L., admitted student, 125.

Slachine Comjianys Works at Linden, Hanover, 357.

IMaokay, J. C, admitted student, 125.

Jladras, rainfall at, referred to, 11, 52.

Plains, submerged gas and water, 387.

JIaldini, M., the harbour of Spezia, 396.

Manby and Telford premiums, and Telford and Watt medals and Miller prizes,

awarded, session 1873-74, 169, 178. — List of subjects for, session 1874-75, 180.
IManby, 0., Honorary Secretary, vote of thanks to, 161.
iManck, H., observations on subterranean water iu Dresden, 369.
Slanders, G. J., elected associate, 124.
jNIartin, W. H., elected associate, 124.
Martley, W., decease of, 165.
jMay, E. C, appointed one of the scrutineers of the ballot for Council, 160. — Vote

of thanks to, 161.
McAlpin, K. W. A. G., elected associate, 124.
SIcDonald, D. E., elected associate, 124.
Meadows, J. McC, Telford premium awarded to, 169, 178.
Medals, Telford and Watt, Telford and Manby premiums, and Miller prizes,

awarded, session 1873-74, 169, 178. — List of subjects for, session 1874-75, ISO.
Jleetings, ordinary, referred to in annual report, 168. — Supplemental, ditto, 169. •
IVIeysey -Thompson, Sir H. S., Bart., decease of, 165. — Memoir of, 293.
Michcle, Y. D. de, elected associate, 124.
Slidnapore, canal of, referred to, 51.
Miller, J. F. J., Lieut. B. S. C, elected associate, 124.

fund, noticed in the annual report, 167.

prizes and Telford and AVatt medals, and Telford and Manby premiums,

awarded, session 1873-74, 169, 179. — List of subjects for, session 1874-75, 180.

scholarship, establishment of, referred to in annual report, 169.

Milne, E. v., admitted student, 125.

448 INDEX.

Minutes of proceedings, increased expense of, 166. — Intended additions to, noticed

in the annual report, 171.
]Mokta-el-Hadid, narrow-gauge railway, 341. Vide Eailways, Narrow-gauge.
Moline, C. E., admitted student, 125.
Morin, General, experimental and geometrical investigation of internal ballistics,

422.
Morris, W. E., decease of, 1G5.— Memoir of, 271.
Morrison, G. J., transferred member, 125.

, W. L., Lieut.-Col., E.E., resignation of, 165.

Moschell, J., connnon error in ascertaining locomotive adhesion available for the

traction of trains, 346.
Moscow-Nislmi railway, breakage of tires on, 351.
Mosel-Saar canal, 388.
Moss, A. S., admitted student, 125.
Mountain railways, experiences in the working of, 335. — Eequirements of engines

for steep gradients, 335. — The Fairlie engine, 336. — Other types of mountain

engines, 338. ,

MuUaly, A. T., admitted student, 125.
Murzban, M. 0., elected associate, 124.

Nagpiir waterworks, the, 1 . Vide Waterworks.

Neville, H. J. W., decease of, 165.

New York, construction of terminal station at 42nd Street, referred to, 80.

Ohio and Mississippi railroad, reduction of gauge of, 77.

Original communications, remarks as to their future character, in the annual
report, 169.— List of subjects for, session 1874-75, 180.— Instructions as to pre-
paring ditto, 184. — List of, received between December 1st, 1873, and November
30th, 1874, 185.

Ormiston, T., remarks as to Colonel Fyfe's experiments on evaporation in the
Deccan and Concan districts in India, 48. — Ditto as to the amount of water lost
through the dams of a reservoir, 48. — Ditto as to evaporation from shallow and
deep tanks, 49. — Ditto as to the construction of the Nagpiir waterworks, and
of similar works in India, 49.

Oscillations, on small, of a material system in stable equilibrium, 308.

Page, G. E., Miller prize awarded to, 169, 179.

Papers, remarks as to their future character, in annual report, 169. — Subjects for,

session 1874-75, 180.
Parabolic arcs, joining of inclined lines by, 304.
Paris sewer water, utilisation of, for agricultural purposes, 380.
Parkes, W., remarks as to the application of cement concrete to marine works,

147. — Ditto as to the staging of the Aberdeen breakwater, 147. — Ditto as to

the size of concrete blocks and the manner of placing them, 148. — Ditto as to

the pier at Kusteudjie, 149.
Parry, W. E., elected associate, 124.
Peacey, H., admitted student, 125.
Peacock, T., elected associate, 124.
Pennsylvania railroad, the ; with remarks on American railway construction and

management, 62. Vide Eailroad.
Permanent way, on ihi elasticity of, 328. — Various kinds of permanent way

INDEX. 4i9

in FmiK-o, 329.— Its actual condition, 330.— The best ballast, iiregularity of
iiuivcmint in rails, and immobility in permanent way, 330. — The double-headed
and Vignoles rails, 331.— The Eastern railway of France, 333.— The Lyons
railway, 333.— The Northern railway, 334.— The Orleans railway, 334.— Tho
Western railway, 334.— The Southern railway of France, 335.

Permanent way of the Pennsylvania railroad, 78.

Peterson, P. A., elected member, 124.

Petroleum oils, tlie combustion of, 412.

Phillips, A., elected associate, 124.

Phipp?!, G. H., remarks as to the use of cast iron for railway wheels, IQS.

I'ichault, M. S., locomotive without fire, 347.

Pig iron, analyses of American, 120.

Pole, W., remarks as to evaporation in India, 35. — Ditto as to the Influence of
wind on evaporation, 36. — Ditto as to a formula to represent Daltou's tables,
3G. — Ditto as to American and European railroads, 105. — Ditto as to the
French using wood screws, 105.— Ditto as to the use of cast iron for wheels, and
of steel for boilers, in America, 106, 107. — Ditto as to the Pullman cars, 108.

Pontzen, E., on meffsures for protecting railways from snow, as adopted on
American and European lines, 354.

Poti-Tiflis railway, experiences in working the, 335.

Power, theory of the transmission of, by ropes, 406.

Prague, rainfall of, referred to, 17.

Premiums, Telford and Manby, and Telford and Watt medals and Miller prizes,
awarded, session 1873-74, 169, 178. — List of subjects for, session 1874-75, 180.

Prestwich, J., Telford medal and premium awarded to, 169, 178.

Priestley, A. C, elected associate, 124.

Printing on stuffs, employment of electro-coppered cast-iron cylinders for, 425.

Proll, Dr. R., graphic determination of the hydraidic head, velocity of discharge,
and time of emptying of fluids from vessels of various forms, 363.

Publications of the Institution, noticed in the annual report, with announcement
of the changes being made in them, 170.

Pullman cars, alluded to, 96, 107, 113.

Eailroad, " The Pennsylvania railroad ; with remarks on American railway
construction and management," 62. — Extent, 62. — Capital account, total
expenditure, total cost, and rise in the value of land, 63. — Eeceipts and
expenses for 1873, 64.— Comparison of the results in 1872 with English rail-
ways, 64. — Analysis of main-line traffic in 1873, 61. — Gradients and curves on
the line from Philmlelphia to Pittsburgh, 65. — Gauge and width, 65. — Over-
bridges and gates, 65. — Bridges and tunnels, 66. — Permanent way on the main
and branch lines, 67. — Signals and stations, 67. — Locomotives, 67. — Their
' swing centre ' trucks, and wheels, 68. — Boilers, 69. — Arrangements for the
driver and guards, 70. — Passenger cars, 71. — Wheels and axles, 71. —
lighting, 71. — Westinghouse pneumatic continuous break, 72. — Goods wagons,
73. — Tratfic conducted by the Empire Transportation Company, 73. — Water
troughs, 74. — Construction and working of railroads in the United States, 74. —
liapid extension of railway system in America and the United Kingdom, 75. —
Share capital and debentures, 75. — Effects of the system of railroads upon the
prosptctsof tho Union, 75. — Variations of gauge on American railroads, 76. —
ISIode of carrying on light earthworks, 77. — Weight of rails and their fastenings,
'iS. — Wooden railroads, 78. — Effect of severity of elimatc in the Eastern Statea
[1874-75. N.S.] 2 G

450

IXDEX.

and Canada, 79. — Snow-plough and water-tanks, 79. — Termini of American
railroads frequently a long distance from business centres, 79. — New York
terminal station, 80. — Appendix : — I. Table of statistical returns as to Pennsyl-
vania railroad, 81. — II. Performances of locomotives on the Pennsylvania rail-
road, 82. — III. Locomotives and rolling stock of the Pennsylvania railroad, 82. —
IV. Comparative statement of locomotives and rolling stock in the United
Kingdom, in India, and in the United States, 83. — V. List of all the curves on
the Pennsylvania railroad main line of less than 1,000 feet radius, 83. — VI.
Position of points on the Pennsylvania railroad at which the average grade
changes; and the elevation of those points, 84. — VII. List of bridges over streams,
on the main line of the Pennsylvania railroad, 85.

Kailroad, Ohio and Mississippi, reduction of gauge of, 77.

Rails. Vide Permanent way.

Railway, breakage of tires on Moscow-Nishni, 351.

bridge over the Elbe at Aussig, Austrian North-Western railway, 322,

, Delhi, reconstruction of bridges on the, 212. Vide Bridges.

Railways, financial statistics of European, from 1855 to 1873, 356.

in France, 328. Vide Permanent wajr.

in Sweden, mileage open and in course of construction, with the cost,

192. — Particulars of the working expenses and other details of, in 1870, 98. —
Ditto, alluded to, 108. Vide also Sweden.

-, measures for protecting, from snow, as adopted on American and Euro-

pean lines, 354.

-, mountain, experiences in the working of, 335. — Requirements of engines

for steep gradients, 335. — The Fairlie engine, 336. — Other types of mountain
engines, 338.

-, narrow-gauge, description of some, 338. — The Ergastiria line, 338. —

The engines, 339. — The wear of the tires, 340. — Consumption of coal, and
traffic, 341.— The Mokta-el-Hadid line, 341.— The lines of Rochelle, of Cessous
and Trebiau, and of St. Le'on, 342.

Rainfall, observations on the, in India, 11. Vide Waterworks.

of the basin of the Seine, 364.

Rapier, R. C, Telford medal and premium awarded to, 169, 178.

Rawlins, J., elected associate, 124.

Rayne, M., transferred member, 125.

Receipts and expenditure, abstract of, from the 1st of December, 1873, to the
30th of November, 1874, 174. Vide also Report.

Rendel, G. W., Watt medal and Telford premium awarded to, 169, 178.

Kennie, Sir J., Past-President, decease of, 165.— Memoir of, 273.

Report, Annual, read and ordered to be printed, 160. — Eminently satisfactory
condition of the society, 162. — Roll of the Institution, 162. — Nature and
objects of civil engineering, 162. — Tabular statement of the transfers, elections,
deceases, and resignations of the members of all classes, during the years 1872-73,
and 1873-74, 164. — Increase in the number of members during the fifty-seven
years of its existence, 164. — Deceases, 165.— Resignations, 165. — Students
attached to the Institution, 165.— Finance, 166.— Investments, 167.— Funds, 167.
— Summary of the diifereut securities in which the funds are placed, 168. —
The ordinary meetings, 168. — Papers read and discussed at ditto, 168. — List
of Telford medals and premiums, and Watt medals and Manby premiums,
awarded, session 1873-74, 169. — Supplemental meetings of students, 169. — •
Miller scholarships established, 169. — Invitations for Papers, 169. — Suggestions

INDEX. 451

as to their future clmracter, 170. — Publications, 170. — Admission of Papers
accepted but not read, 171. — Abstracts of memoirs from foreign transactions
and periodicals, 171. — Catalogue of engineering information, 172. — Abstract of
receipts and expenditure from the Ist of December, 1873, to the 30th of
November, 1874, 174:. — Premiums awarded, session 1873-74, 178. — Subjects for
Papers, session 1874-75, 180.

Eesal, H., theory of the transmission of power by ropes, 406.

Reversing lever of locomotives, on the tendency of the, to-" return suddenly" when
being pulled over, 349.

Bichard, H., the Hanoverian Machine Company's works at Linden, 357.

Ridings, H. S., transferred member, 125.

Ridley, W., transferred member, 125.

River Croton, flow of the west branch of the, 367.

Seine, rainfall of the basin of the, 364. — Hydrology of ditto, 865.

Rivers, relation between water levels of main, in Holland, 368.

Road-mukiug in the Basses-Pyrene'es, 316.

Robertson, F. E., elected associate, 124.

Roe, J., decease of, 165.— Memoir of, 297.

Roff, G. L., " The extension of the South jetty at Kustjendie," 142.

Roof-trusses, graphic method of calculating the stresses on, 302,

Ropes, theory of tl>e transmission of power by, 406.

Rouvier's machine for multiple signalling described, 429.

Roux, M., experimental researches on explosive substances, 423.

Rumball, A., vote of thanks to. 160.

Rushton, J. R., memoir of, 278.

Rziha, Fr., removal of earth by machinery from the Zizka tunnel, Prague, 323.

St. Gothard tunnel, 325.

S. Malo and S. Servan traversing bridge, 3'.i4,

Salbach, H., Dresden v.aterworks, 383.

Samuel; J., decease of. 165. — Memoir of, 280,

Sandberg, C. P., " Engineering in Sweden," 191.

Sarrau. M., ex jieri mental researches on expliwive sub-tances, 423.

Schiele, H., gasholder explosions, 386.

Sclilumberger, T., on the employment of ekcLix)-coppered cast-iron cylinders for ,
printing on atuflfs, 425.

Seine, rainfall of the basin of tlie, 364.

, the hydrology of the basin of the, 365.

Sewer water, utilisation of, of Paris for agricultural purposes, 380.

Shand, J., ti-ansferred memlx;r, vi.

Shelford, W., remarks as to the construction of light railways, 109.

Siemens, C. W., lemarksas to American railroads, 100.— Ditto as to the use of
steel for Iwilers, 100.

Signalling, on the multiple system of, 428. — Its aim, 428. — Comparison between
the system of multiple signalling and of prepared messages, 429. — Description
of the Rouvier machine, 430. — ^Description of apparatus for quadruple signal-
ling, 431.

Simpson, A. T., transferred member, vi.

, J. C, transferred member, vi.

Smith, C. G., Miller prize awarded to, 169, 179.

452 INDEX.

Smith, F., elected associate, 124. •

, Sir F. P., decease of, 165.

, Sir J. M. F., General, decease of, 165.— Memoir of, 298.

T. M., appointed one of the scrutineers of the ballot for Council, 160. —

Vote of thanks to, 161.
Snell, H. C, admitted student, vi.

Snow, on measures for protecting railways from, as adopted on American and
European lines, 354.

plough used on American railroads, 79.

Spain, cultivation of sugar-cane in, 427.

Spezzia, the harbour of, 396.

Spielmann, I., admitted student, vi.

Spiesz, O., graphic method of calculating the stresses on roof-trusses, 302.

Staging, sea, 127. Vide Breakwater.

Stanley, W., remarks as to railway construction in Sweden as compared with

America, 108. — Ditto as to the employment of wood screws, 108.
Starbuck, Mr., his remarks as to cast-iron wheels for tramways, alluded to, 121.
Statistics, financial, of European railways from 1855 to 1873, 356.
Steel, use of, for boilers, in America, referred to, 100.

and iron, annual produce of, in Sweden, 209. Vide also Sweden.

Steinsberg, M., experiences in the working of mountain railways, 335.
Sttphenson, G. K., Vice-President, remarks as to the construction of piers, wilh

reference to the Aberdeen South breakwater, 152.
Stevenson, A. D., admitted student, 125.

— , F., appointed one of the scrutineers of the ballot for Council, 160. —

Vote of thanks to, 161.
Stone, C, " The implements employed, and the stone protection adopted, in the

reconstruction of the bridges on the Delhi railway," 212.
Stoney, B. B., remarks as to the deposition of concrete in bags, with reference to
the new South breakwater, Aberdeen, 158. — Telford medal and premium
awarded to, 169, 178.
Strange, A., Lieut.-Col., remarks as to the inconstancy of the sun's action, 46. —
Ditto as to observations on the sun-spot periods, and their possible relation to
rainfall, 47.
Stresses, graphic method of calculating the, on roof-trusses, 302.
Students attached to the Institution, 165. — Increase of their number, 166.—

Suggested examination for admission, 166.
Stiirmer, Dr. G., financial statistics of European railways from 1855 to 1873, 356.
Subjects for Papers, session 1874-75, 180.
Subterranean water, observations on, in Dresden, 369.
Sugar-cane, cultivation of the, in Spain, 427.
Sutlej, new piers for the bridges over the river, Delhi railway, 212.
Sweden, " On engineering in Sweden," 191. —The Society of Engineers in Sweden,
191.— Engineering in Sweden in olden times, 191.— Railways open for traffic,
and in course of construction, 192.— Mileage and cost of construction, 194. —
Canals, 196.— Gotha canal, 198.— Dalsland canal, 199.— Iron-making and
mining, 202. — Average prices of Swedish and Englis-h iron for twenty years,
1855-74, 204.— Mining operations, 205.— Charcoal-burning, 20G.— The con-
version of pig into wrought iron, 207.— Motala puddling works, and annual
produce of iron and steel in Sweden, 209.— The " Jerukontor" iron office, 210.
— The corps of Koyal Engineers, 210.

INDEX. 453

Swcilish mil ways in 1S70, particulars of the working expenses and utliur details

of, 98.— Ditto, alliuled to, 108.
Symons, G. J., remarks as to the rainfall at Nagpiir, Madras, and Barbadoes, 52.

— Ditto as to the relation between evaporation and rainfall, 53.

Tabular statement of the transfers, elections, deceases, and resignations of the

members of all classes, during the years 1872-73 and 1873-74, lG-1.
Taylor, J., appointed one of the scrutineers of the ballot for Council, 160. — Vote

of thanks i 161.
Tee, H.. admitted student, 125.
Telegraphy. Vide signalling.
Telford and "Watt medals, Telford and Manby premiums, and Miller priz( s,

awarded, session 1873-74, 169, 178. — List of subjects for, session 1874-75, 180.
Thames embankment at Chelsea, alluded to, 151.
Thomas, "W. H., elected member, 124.
Tires, breakage of, on the Moscow-Nlshni railway during the winter of 1871-72,

351.
T-iron — graphical determination of the weights, corresponding to a given span

and given unit strain, which a double X"iron can support, when resting on

two bearings, and of which the moment of inertia and depth are known, 303.
Trass, on Andernach, 313.
Tredgold, T., his definition of the nature and objects of civil engineering,

referred to, 1G2.
Tresca, M., on the meclianiaxl properties of gun-metal, 421.
Tugboats on the Ehone, 404.

Tulloch, H., Major, R.E., report on the water supply of Bombay, referred to, 48.
Tunnel, removal of earth by machinery from tlie Zizka, Prague, 323.
, St. Gothard, 325. — Progress at Gobchenen end during August 1874, 325.

— Ditto at Airolo during ditto, 326. — Ditto at Goschenen during September,

327.— Ditto at Airolo during ditto, 327.
Tylor, J. J., admitted fctudent, 125.

Veevers, H., elected associate, 124.

Vehar Lake, near Bombay, its annual rainfall, 44. — The height of water

therein, 45.
Verdon, Sir G. F., resignation of, 165.

Vernon-Harcourt, L. F., Manby premium adjudged to, 169, 178.
Viga, waters of the, manner in which they had been turned to account, referred

to, 51.
Villaret, M., tugboats on the Rhone, 404.

Wake, H. H., transferred member, vr.

Water and gas mains, submerged, 387.

Water, subterranean, observations on, in Dresden, 369,

Waterworks, Dresden, 383.

, " The Ndgpiir waterworks ; with observations on the rainfall, tlio flow

from the ground, and evajwration at Nagpiir; and on the fluctuation of rainfall
in India and in other places," 1,— Situation of Nagpiir, I.— Geological forma-
tion of the district, 1.— Average rainfall, 1.— Population, 1. — Nature of previous
sui>i)lies of water, 2.— Points to be considered in new supply, 2.— Utilisation
of the old reservoir at Ambajhari', 2.— Orj-iu, situation, and ruinctl con-

454 INDEX.

dition, 3.— Capacity, 3. — Old system of intermittent supply by sandstone pipes
and wooden plugs, 4. — Description of the new works, 5. — Capacity of the
new reservoir, and daily supply, 5.— Sinking of the puddle trench, 6. — Inter-
ception of springs, 6. — Dimensions of trench and cost, 6.— Construction of
puddle wall, 6. — Width and cost, 7.— Treatment of ancient embankment, 7.
— Of the inner and outer slopes, 7. — Total cost of raising embankment, 7. —
Position of discharge pipe, 8. — Straining and regulating tower, 8, — Sluices, 8. —
Straining frames, 8. — Construction of syphon, 8. — Description of its course, 9.
— Care taken in crossing the puddle trench, 10. — Lift of the syplion, 10. — Total
cost of the outlet, 10. — New waste weir, 10. — Main and city distribution pipes,
10.— Cast-iron piping, 11.— Total cost of the works, 11. — Intensity of rainfall
in India, and the proportion flowing from the ground, as observed at Nagpur
and other places, 11.— Showers during monsoon of 1872 at Nagpur, 12.—
Average annual rainfall at Nagpur not to be depended upou as a means of
water supply, 12. — Records of discharge of drainage area confined to four
months, 12. — Observations on discharge of Ambajhan' drainage, 13. — Increase
of total discharge from June to October, 13. — Yield in driest year, 13. — Ex-
planation of a revised twenty-years' record of rainfall, 14. — Storage capacity of
the present reservoir as regards average yield, rainfall, and supply, 14. — Quality
of water discharged by drainage area, 15. — Evaporation in India, with results
of the attempts to determine the amount lost from that cause at Nagpur, 16. —

i Fluctuation of rainfall in India and in other places, 17. — Kelation of spots on
the sun's disc to the fluctuation, 19 (note). — Eemarks as to requirements of
engineers constructing similar works in India, 21. — Appendix:— I. Monthly
monsoon, and annual rainfall at Nagpur for the nineteen years, 1854-55 to
1872-73, 22. — II. Extraordinary showers at Nagpur diu-ing the monsoon of
1872, 23. — III. Probable discharge of water from the drainage area of 4,224
' acres, and the revised rainfall records for each year from 1854-55 to 1872-73,
24. — IV. Proportions of reservoirs, drainage area 4,224 acres, 25. — V. Eesults
of observations on the evaporation from the Ambajhan' reservoir during tlie
dry season of 1872-73, 26. — VI. Fluctuations of the rainfall as observed at
fourteen stations, the periods of ob.servation extending from nineteen to sixty
years, the variations being expressed in terms of the mean annual rainfall
at each station, 27. — VII. Actual rainfall during maximum and minimum
sun-spot periods, 28, 29. — VIII. Actual and total rainfall at five places during
the six maximum and minimum sun-spot periods, from 1836 to 1867, 30. — IX.
Actual and total rainfall at seven places during the four maximum and
minimum sun-spot periods, from 1847 to 1867, 31. — X. Actual and total
rainfall at nine places during the three maximum and minimum sun-spot
periods from 1854 to 1S67, 31.

"Watt and Telford medals, Telford and Miller premiums, and Miller prizes,
awarded, session 1873-74, 169, 178.— List of subjects for, session 1874-75, 180.

Webb, F. W., remarks as to the Pennsylvania railroad, and American railroads
in general, 91. — Ditto as to the construction of fire-boxes, 97.

Westinghouse pneumatic continuf)us break, referred to, 72.

Wick breakwater, alluded to, 153.

Wilde, S. .T., elected associate, 124.

Williams, R. Price, remarks as to the Peuusylvauia railroad, and its working
expenses, 104.

W^illi.-^, E. R., resignation of, 165.

Winsor, F. A., decease of, 165.

INDEX.

455

Winter, II. von, the drainage system of Dantzic, 379.
"Wooilcock, W., decease i)f, 1115.— Memoir of, 299. »

Wood screws used on F'rencli railways, alluded to, 105, 108.
Wordsworth, C. F. F., decease of, 165.— Memoir of, 300.

Worsdell, T. W., remarks as to the Pennsylvania railroad, and as to the employ-
ment of steel for boilers and fire-boxes, 92, 93. — Ditto as to driving wheels, 94.
Worthington, W. B., admitted student, 12.5.

Yarrow, T. A., decease of, 165.— Memoir of, 282.
Young, J. B., elected member, 124.
, J. D., admitted student, 125.

Zeuner, Dr. G., results of experimental researches on the discharge of air under
great pressures, 375.

EN'D OF VOL. XXXrX.

LONDON : PRINTEb UK WILLIAM CDJWES AND SONS, STAUFOBD STBEET
AND CHABINO CBOSS.

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Minutes of Proceed:n^o of The Insuuiuor. of Civil Elt^ewis .Vol.'XXXlX Session. 18?4r 7S Pan I .

Ftg.3.

CROSS SECTION

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MuiiiI-5 ■if' ft-jc*cfira£- uf l^p rnrtiiuu.=ii tf Cm! En^n^flin. V.il. XXXIX Session lM74-7Ei. IVrt 1

ITHIE l«:&tSIPllII la WAYISK VJ^nKS^

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DIAGRAMS OF STANDARD ENGINES,

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PART LONGITUDINAL SECTION.

CROSS SECTION THROUGH FIREBOX.

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MiTLiites or Hi'oceedin^ of The Instituiiou uf CivJ EngineerP. VJ' 2XXTX. Session 1674.75. Fart 1.

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CROSS SECTION THROUGH FIREBOX.

.Minutes of Prorieeilings of lie Jiistitu.tmii of Qril Engineers. Vol XXXK. SesBlcai 1874.7!). pii-t 1.

THO'rKELL.I.I'M 40KIN&SI' COTEKT GARTEI.'

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SECTrONAL PLAN.

Irooeedings at The iislatutiaa of CiTiI EngineerE."VQL3DCCDC Seasion 1874-75 Paxt.l.

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USED FOR DEPOSITING 16-TON BACS OF CONCRETE

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Minutes of ft-oceedmgs of The Institution of Cml En^ri-.=4rs Vol XXXX Seesioiil874_7S Pm* 1

THO? iCEI-L.LlTH 40 KING 3» COVEUX

SCINOt. PUNJAB kHO DtLHI RAILWAY.

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IVES' EXCAVATOR

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mmites of Proceeaingb ofTheJnstituUon of Civil Etigmeers. Voir XXXIX Session 1874'.75 Parti

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Minutes ofProcwdmgB c4' The Jnsututioii of Cml Engineer*. Tol, iXXH SeaHioii 1874-7'^ Pull

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lll?iillil!fmrM^lfi'm."'"^^''SITY LIBRARIES

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NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

3 9358 00852432 1

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